The Effects of Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Fluoride, and Lead on Bone Tissue

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Abstract

Bones are metabolically active organs. Their reconstruction is crucial for the proper functioning of the skeletal system during bone growth and remodeling, fracture healing, and maintaining calcium–phosphorus homeostasis. The bone metabolism and tissue properties are influenced by trace elements that may act either indirectly through the regulation of macromineral metabolism, or directly by affecting osteoblast and osteoclast proliferation or activity, or through becoming part of the bone mineral matrix. This study analyzes the skeletal impact of macroelements (calcium, magnesium, phosphorus), microelements (fluorine), and heavy metals (lead), and discusses the concentration of each of these elements in the various bone tissues.

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Most cited references 175

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Biology of Bone Tissue: Structure, Function, and Factors That Influence Bone Cells

Rinaldo Florencio-Silva, Gisela Sasso, Estela Sasso-Cerri … (2015)

Bone tissue is continuously remodeled through the concerted actions of bone cells, which include bone resorption by osteoclasts and bone formation by osteoblasts, whereas osteocytes act as mechanosensors and orchestrators of the bone remodeling process. This process is under the control of local (e.g., growth factors and cytokines) and systemic (e.g., calcitonin and estrogens) factors that all together contribute for bone homeostasis. An imbalance between bone resorption and formation can result in bone diseases including osteoporosis. Recently, it has been recognized that, during bone remodeling, there are an intricate communication among bone cells. For instance, the coupling from bone resorption to bone formation is achieved by interaction between osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Moreover, osteocytes produce factors that influence osteoblast and osteoclast activities, whereas osteocyte apoptosis is followed by osteoclastic bone resorption. The increasing knowledge about the structure and functions of bone cells contributed to a better understanding of bone biology. It has been suggested that there is a complex communication between bone cells and other organs, indicating the dynamic nature of bone tissue. In this review, we discuss the current data about the structure and functions of bone cells and the factors that influence bone remodeling.

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Lead toxicity: a review

Ab Latif Wani, Anjum Ara, Jawed Ahmad Usmani (2015)

Lead toxicity is an important environmental disease and its effects on the human body are devastating. There is almost no function in the human body which is not affected by lead toxicity. Though in countries like US and Canada the use of lead has been controlled up to a certain extent, it is still used vehemently in the developing countries. This is primarily because lead bears unique physical and chemical properties that make it suitable for a large number of applications for which humans have exploited its benefits from historical times and thus it has become a common environmental pollutant. Lead is highly persistent in the environment and because of its continuous use its levels rise in almost every country, posing serious threats. This article reviews the works listed in the literature with recent updates regarding the toxicity of lead. Focus is also on toxic effects of lead on the renal, reproductive and nervous system. Finally the techniques available for treating lead toxicity are presented with some recent updates.

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Toxicity of lead: A review with recent updates

Gagan Flora, Deepesh Gupta, Archana Tiwari (2012)

Lead poisoning has been recognized as a major public health risk, particularly in developing countries. Though various occupational and public health measures have been undertaken in order to control lead exposure, cases of lead poisoning are still reported. Exposure to lead produces various deleterious effects on the hematopoietic, renal, reproductive and central nervous system, mainly through increased oxidative stress. These alterations play a prominent role in disease manifestations. Modulation of cellular thiols for protection against reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been used as a therapeutic strategy against lead poisoning. N-acetylcysteine, α-lipoic acid, vitamin E, quercetin and a few herbal extracts show prophylaxis against the majority of lead mediated injury in both in vitro and in vivo studies. This review provides a comprehensive account of recent updates describing health effects of lead exposure, relevant biomarkers and mechanisms involved in lead toxicity. It also updates the readers about recent advances in chelation therapy and newer therapeutic strategies, like nanoencapsulation, to treat lead induced toxic manifestations.

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Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): Biomolecules

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Biomolecules

Journal ID (publisher-id): biomolecules

Title: Biomolecules

Publisher: MDPI

ISSN (Electronic): 2218-273X

Publication date (Electronic): 28 March 2021

Publication date Collection: April 2021

Volume: 11

Issue: 4

Electronic Location Identifier: 506

Affiliations

[1 ]Department of Medical Rehabilitation and Clinical Physiotherapy, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Żołnierska 54, 71-210 Szczecin, Poland; ciosekzaneta@ 123456gmail.com (Ż.C.); iwrot@ 123456wp.pl (I.R.)

[2 ]Department of Biology and Medical Parasitology, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Powstańców Wielkopolskich 72, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland; nlanocha@ 123456pum.edu.pl

[3 ]Independent Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Botany, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Powstańców Wielkopolskich 72, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland; kodan@ 123456pum.edu.pl

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[* ]Correspondence: kotkar@ 123456pum.edu.pl ; Tel. +48-91-466-16-72

Author information

Żaneta Ciosek https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3834-6694

Karolina Kot https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0051-2295

Danuta Kosik-Bogacka https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3796-5493

Natalia Łanocha-Arendarczyk https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1755-155X

Iwona Rotter https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4337-6476

Article

Publisher ID: biomolecules-11-00506

DOI: 10.3390/biom11040506

PMC ID: 8066206

PubMed ID: 33800689

SO-VID: ea175f19-eaa7-40f5-a972-c1c1030930d5

License:

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

The Effects of Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Fluoride, and Lead on Bone Tissue

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Amsterdam University Press

Most cited references 175

Biology of Bone Tissue: Structure, Function, and Factors That Influence Bone Cells

Lead toxicity: a review

Toxicity of lead: A review with recent updates

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