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      A Preliminary Investigation on Smokeless Tobacco Use and Its Cognitive Effects Among Athletes

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          Abstract

          Introduction: Among athletes, an increasing use of nicotine via smokeless tobacco has been reported. However, there are currently unanswered questions about whether the use by athletes is due to nicotine’s addictive properties and/or to benefits in physical and cognitive performance (e.g., decision-making). In this original article we reported about, (i) snus-induced reinforcing effects among snus-user athletes (Survey) and (ii) the effects of snus on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) in snus-user skiers (Experimental study). IGT is an experimental neuropsychological task that has been previously used on athletes and addicts to test decision-making.

          Methods: Survey: data were collected with the modified Cigarette Evaluation Questionnaire (mCEQ) that was administered to 61 winter sport athlete snus-users in Northern Italy. Experimental study: IGT data included: amount of money earned, number of choices from advantageous and disadvantageous decks and overall net score. Eighteen male snus-users were tested under satiety or after 12-h abstinence conditions according to a crossover design.

          Results: Survey: the comparison between occasional vs. regular snus-users showed a statistically significant difference in satisfaction ( P = 0.0088), calm ( P = 0.0252), and enjoyment ( P = 0.0001) mCEQ items suggesting a snus intake/effect relationship. Experimental study: significantly higher IGT net scores were found during the first 20 choice cards after abstinence vs. satiety conditions ( P = 0.0024).

          Conclusion: In the Survey, regular snus use induces greater satisfaction and psychological reward than occasional use. In the Experimental study, snus intake might produce an early and transient cognitive improvement on IGT in abstinent snus-users, presumably acting as a withdrawal relief.

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          Effect of smokeless tobacco (snus) on smoking and public health in Sweden.

          J Foulds (2003)
          To review the evidence on the effects of moist smokeless tobacco (snus) on smoking and ill health in Sweden. Narrative review of published papers and other data sources (for example, conference abstracts and internet based information) on snus use, use of other tobacco products, and changes in health status in Sweden. Snus is manufactured and stored in a manner that causes it to deliver lower concentrations of some harmful chemicals than other tobacco products, although it can deliver high doses of nicotine. It is dependence forming, but does not appear to cause cancer or respiratory diseases. It may cause a slight increase in cardiovascular risks and is likely to be harmful to the unborn fetus, although these risks are lower than those caused by smoking. There has been a larger drop in male daily smoking (from 40% in 1976 to 15% in 2002) than female daily smoking (34% in 1976 to 20% in 2002) in Sweden, with a substantial proportion (around 30%) of male ex-smokers using snus when quitting smoking. Over the same time period, rates of lung cancer and myocardial infarction have dropped significantly faster among Swedish men than women and remain at low levels as compared with other developed countries with a long history of tobacco use. Snus availability in Sweden appears to have contributed to the unusually low rates of smoking among Swedish men by helping them transfer to a notably less harmful form of nicotine dependence.
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            Pacing and decision making in sport and exercise: the roles of perception and action in the regulation of exercise intensity.

            Benjamin Smits, Gert-Jan Pepping, Florentina J Hettinga (2014)
            In pursuit of optimal performance, athletes and physical exercisers alike have to make decisions about how and when to invest their energy. The process of pacing has been associated with the goal-directed regulation of exercise intensity across an exercise bout. The current review explores divergent views on understanding underlying mechanisms of decision making in pacing. Current pacing literature provides a wide range of aspects that might be involved in the determination of an athlete's pacing strategy, but lacks in explaining how perception and action are coupled in establishing behaviour. In contrast, decision-making literature rooted in the understanding that perception and action are coupled provides refreshing perspectives on explaining the mechanisms that underlie natural interactive behaviour. Contrary to the assumption of behaviour that is managed by a higher-order governor that passively constructs internal representations of the world, an ecological approach is considered. According to this approach, knowledge is rooted in the direct experience of meaningful environmental objects and events in individual environmental processes. To assist a neuropsychological explanation of decision making in exercise regulation, the relevance of the affordance competition hypothesis is explored. By considering pacing as a behavioural expression of continuous decision making, new insights on underlying mechanisms in pacing and optimal performance can be developed.
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              Decision-making and cognitive abilities: A review of associations between Iowa Gambling Task performance, executive functions, and intelligence.

              Maggie Toplak, Geoff B. Sorge, Andre Benoit … (2010)
              The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) has been used to study decision-making differences in many different clinical and developmental samples. It has been suggested that IGT performance captures abilities that are separable from cognitive abilities, including executive functions and intelligence. The purpose of the current review was to examine studies that have explicitly examined the relationship between IGT performance and these cognitive abilities. We included 43 studies that reported correlational analyses with IGT performance, including measures of inhibition, working memory, and set-shifting as indices of executive functions, as well as measures of verbal, nonverbal, and full-scale IQ as indices of intelligence. Overall, only a small proportion of the studies reported a statistically significant relationship between IGT performance and these cognitive abilities. The majority of studies reported a non-significant relationship. Of the minority of studies that reported statistically significant effects, effect sizes were, at best, small to modest, and confidence intervals were large, indicating that considerable variability in performance on the IGT is not captured by current measures of executive function and intelligence. These findings highlight the separability between decision-making on the IGT and cognitive abilities, which is consistent with recent conceptualizations that differentiate rationality from intelligence. 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Front Pharmacol
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Front Pharmacol
                Journal ID (publisher-id): Front. Pharmacol.
                Title: Frontiers in Pharmacology
                Publisher: Frontiers Media S.A.
                ISSN (Electronic): 1663-9812
                Publication date (Electronic): 12 March 2018
                Publication date Collection: 2018
                Volume: 9
                Electronic Location Identifier: 216
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada , Granada, Spain
                [2] 2Neuropsychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Diagnostic and Public Health, University of Verona , Verona, Italy
                [3] 3Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, School of Exercise and Sport Science, University of Verona , Verona, Italy
                [4] 4Department of Animal Biology and Ecology, University of Cagliari , Cagliari, Italy
                [5] 5“G.Minardi” Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Sassari , Sassari, Italy
                Author notes

                Edited by: Andrew Lawrence, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Australia

                Reviewed by: Toby Mündel, Massey University, New Zealand; Kelly J. Clemens, University of New South Wales, Australia

                *Correspondence: Thomas Zandonai, thomas@ 123456ugr.es

                This article was submitted to Translational Pharmacology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Pharmacology

                Article
                DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00216
                PMC ID: 5857588
                PubMed ID: 29593541
                SO-VID: ebde1669-8371-4dab-9673-ffcf6d9c6e7a
                Copyright © Copyright © 2018 Zandonai, Chiamulera, Mancabelli, Falconieri and Diana.
                License:

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                Date received : 11 January 2018
                Date accepted : 27 February 2018
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 38, Pages: 6, Words: 0
                Categories
                Subject: Pharmacology
                Subject: Original Research

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Pharmacology & Pharmaceutical medicine
                Keywords: snus,nicotine,reinforcing effect,decision-making,winter sport environment
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Pharmacology & Pharmaceutical medicine
                Keywords: snus, nicotine, reinforcing effect, decision-making, winter sport environment

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