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      Chondroitin Sulfate, Hyaluronic Acid and Chitin/Chitosan Production Using Marine Waste Sources: Characteristics, Applications and Eco-Friendly Processes: A Review

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          Abstract

          In the last decade, an increasing number of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), chitin and chitosan applications have been reported. Their commercial demands have been extended to different markets, such as cosmetics, medicine, biotechnology, food and textiles. Marine wastes from fisheries and aquaculture are susceptible sources for polymers but optimized processes for their recovery and production must be developed to satisfy such necessities. In the present work, we have reviewed different alternatives reported in the literature to produce and purify chondroitin sulfate (CS), hyaluronic acid (HA) and chitin/chitosan (CH/CHs) with the aim of proposing environmentally friendly processes by combination of various microbial, chemical, enzymatic and membranes strategies and technologies.

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          A review of chitin and chitosan applications

          Majeti N.V Ravi Kumar (2000)
          Article 0 comments Cited 911 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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            Hyaluronic acid: a natural biopolymer with a broad range of biomedical and industrial applications.

            Grigorij Kogan, Ladislav Šoltés, Robert Stern … (2006)
            Hyaluronic acid (hyaluronan, HA) is a linear polysaccharide formed from disaccharide units containing N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and glucuronic acid. It has a high molecular mass, usually in the order of millions of Daltons, and interesting viscoelastic properties influenced by its polymeric and polyelectrolyte characteristics. HA is present in almost all biological fluids and tissues. In clinical medicine, it is used as a diagnostic marker for many diseases including cancer, rheumatoid arthritis and liver pathologies, as well as for supplementation of impaired synovial fluid in arthritic patients by means of intra-articular injections. It is also used in certain ophthalmological and otological surgeries and cosmetic regeneration and reconstruction of soft tissue. Herein we present an overview of the occurrence and physiological properties of HA, as well as of the recent advances in production biotechnology and preparation of the HA-based materials for medical application.
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              Chitin--the undisputed biomolecule of great potential.

              Farooqahmed Kittur, R Tharanathan (2002)
              Of the truly abundant polysaccharides in Nature, only chitin has yet to find utilization in large quantity. Chitin is the second most abundant natural biopolymer derived from exoskeletons of crustaceans and also from cell walls of fungi and insects. Chitin is a linear beta 1,4-linked polymer of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (GlcNAc), whereas chitosan, a copolymer of GlcNAc (approximately 20%) and glucosamine (GlcN, 80%) residues, is a product derived from de-N-acetylation of chitin in the presence of hot alkali. Chitosan is, in fact, a collective name representing a family of de-N-acetylated chitins deacetylated to different degrees. Both chitin/chitosan and their modified derivatives find extensive applications in medicine, agriculture, food, and non-food industries as well. They have emerged as a new class of physiological materials of highly sophisticated functions. Their application versatility is a great challenge to the scientific community and to industry. All these are the result of their versatile biological activity, excellent biocompatibility, and complete biodegradability in combination with low toxicity. Commercial availability of high-purity forms of chitin/chitosan and the continuous appearance of new types of chitin/chitosan derivatives with more and more useful and specific properties have led to an unlimited R&D efforts on this most versatile amino polysaccharide, chitin to find new applications, which are necessary to realize its full potential. Incidentally, this too has become an environmental priority. No doubt, chitin is surely an undisputed biomolecule of great potential.
              Article 0 comments Cited 172 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Mar Drugs
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Mar Drugs
                Journal ID (publisher-id): marinedrugs
                Title: Marine Drugs
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 1660-3397
                Publication date (Electronic): 11 March 2013
                Publication date Collection: March 2013
                Volume: 11
                Issue: 3
                Pages: 747-774
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Group of Recycling and Valorisation of Waste Materials (REVAL), Marine Research Institute (IIM-CSIC), r/Eduardo Cabello, 6. Vigo, Galicia 36208, Spain; E-Mails: sabelara@ 123456iim.csic.es (I.R.-A.); rvrlab@ 123456iim.csic.es (J.F.); pgonzalez@ 123456iim.csic.es (M.P.G.); reciclaa@ 123456iim.csic.es (M.A.M.)
                [2 ] Research Centre of Vine and Wine Related Science (ICVV-CSIC), Scientific and Technical Complex of the University of La Rioja, Logroño 26006, Spain; E-Mail: nachi@ 123456iim.csic.es
                Author notes
                [* ] Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: jvazquez@ 123456iim.csic.es ; Tel.: +34-986-214-468 or +34-986-231-930; Fax: +34-986-292-762.
                Article
                Publisher ID: marinedrugs-11-00747
                DOI: 10.3390/md11030747
                PMC ID: 3705368
                PubMed ID: 23478485
                SO-VID: ecc4c415-0080-41f0-9228-e753b8435589
                Copyright © © 2013 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
                License:

                This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).

                History
                Date received : 17 December 2012
                Date revision received : 28 January 2013
                Date accepted : 06 February 2013
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Pharmacology & Pharmaceutical medicine
                Keywords: by-products upgrading,chitin and chitosan,chondroitin sulphate,clean production,eco-friendly processes,glycosaminoglycans,hyaluronic acid
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Pharmacology & Pharmaceutical medicine
                Keywords: by-products upgrading, chitin and chitosan, chondroitin sulphate, clean production, eco-friendly processes, glycosaminoglycans, hyaluronic acid

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