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      Extracellular Vesicle miRNAs in the Promotion of Cardiac Neovascularisation

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          Abstract

          Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of mortality worldwide claiming almost 17. 9 million deaths annually. A primary cause is atherosclerosis within the coronary arteries, which restricts blood flow to the heart muscle resulting in myocardial infarction (MI) and cardiac cell death. Despite substantial progress in the management of coronary heart disease (CHD), there is still a significant number of patients developing chronic heart failure post-MI. Recent research has been focused on promoting neovascularisation post-MI with the ultimate goal being to reduce the extent of injury and improve function in the failing myocardium. Cardiac cell transplantation studies in pre-clinical models have shown improvement in cardiac function; nonetheless, poor retention of the cells has indicated a paracrine mechanism for the observed improvement. Cell communication in a paracrine manner is controlled by various mechanisms, including extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs have emerged as novel regulators of intercellular communication, by transferring molecules able to influence molecular pathways in the recipient cell. Several studies have demonstrated the ability of EVs to stimulate angiogenesis by transferring microRNA (miRNA, miR) molecules to endothelial cells (ECs). In this review, we describe the process of neovascularisation and current developments in modulating neovascularisation in the heart using miRNAs and EV-bound miRNAs. Furthermore, we critically evaluate methods used in cell culture, EV isolation and administration.

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          Extracellular vesicles: Exosomes, microvesicles, and friends

          Cells release into the extracellular environment diverse types of membrane vesicles of endosomal and plasma membrane origin called exosomes and microvesicles, respectively. These extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent an important mode of intercellular communication by serving as vehicles for transfer between cells of membrane and cytosolic proteins, lipids, and RNA. Deficiencies in our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms for EV formation and lack of methods to interfere with the packaging of cargo or with vesicle release, however, still hamper identification of their physiological relevance in vivo. In this review, we focus on the characterization of EVs and on currently proposed mechanisms for their formation, targeting, and function.
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            Overview of MicroRNA Biogenesis, Mechanisms of Actions, and Circulation

            MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of non-coding RNAs that play important roles in regulating gene expression. The majority of miRNAs are transcribed from DNA sequences into primary miRNAs and processed into precursor miRNAs, and finally mature miRNAs. In most cases, miRNAs interact with the 3′ untranslated region (3′ UTR) of target mRNAs to induce mRNA degradation and translational repression. However, interaction of miRNAs with other regions, including the 5′ UTR, coding sequence, and gene promoters, have also been reported. Under certain conditions, miRNAs can also activate translation or regulate transcription. The interaction of miRNAs with their target genes is dynamic and dependent on many factors, such as subcellular location of miRNAs, the abundancy of miRNAs and target mRNAs, and the affinity of miRNA-mRNA interactions. miRNAs can be secreted into extracellular fluids and transported to target cells via vesicles, such as exosomes, or by binding to proteins, including Argonautes. Extracellular miRNAs function as chemical messengers to mediate cell-cell communication. In this review, we provide an update on canonical and non-canonical miRNA biogenesis pathways and various mechanisms underlying miRNA-mediated gene regulations. We also summarize the current knowledge of the dynamics of miRNA action and of the secretion, transfer, and uptake of extracellular miRNAs.
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              Reassessment of Exosome Composition

              The heterogeneity of small extracellular vesicles and presence of non-vesicular extracellular matter have led to debate about contents and functional properties of exosomes. Here, we employ high-resolution density gradient fractionation and direct immunoaffinity capture to precisely characterize the RNA, DNA, and protein constituents of exosomes and other non-vesicle material. Extracellular RNA, RNA-binding proteins and other cellular proteins are differentially expressed in exosomes and non-vesicle compartments. Argonaute 1–4, glycolytic enzymes and cytoskeletal proteins are absent from exosomes. We identify Annexin A1 as a specific marker for microvesicles that are shed directly from the plasma membrane. We further show that small extracellular vesicles are not vehicles of active DNA release. Instead, we propose a new model for active secretion of extracellular DNA through an autophagy- and multivesicular endosome-dependent, but exosome-independent mechanism. This study demonstrates the need for a reassessment of exosome composition and offers a framework for a clearer understanding of extracellular vesicle heterogeneity. A reassessment of exosome composition establishes the differential distribution of protein, RNA, and DNA between small extracellular vesicles and non-vesicular extracellular matter and establishes that small extracellular vesicles are not vehicles of active DNA release.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Physiol
                Front Physiol
                Front. Physiol.
                Frontiers in Physiology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-042X
                25 September 2020
                2020
                : 11
                : 579892
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Centre for Cardiovascular Science, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh , Edinburgh, United Kingdom
                [2] 2Department of Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University , Maastricht, Netherlands
                [3] 3Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University , Maastricht, Netherlands
                Author notes

                Edited by: Reinier Boon, Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany

                Reviewed by: Jason E. Fish, University Health Network (UHN), Canada; Kasey C. Vickers, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, United States; Peifeng Li, Qingdao University, China

                *Correspondence: Andrew Howard Baker andy.baker@ 123456ed.ac.uk
                Abdelaziz Beqqali a.beqqali@ 123456ed.ac.uk

                This article was submitted to Clinical and Translational Physiology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Physiology

                Article
                10.3389/fphys.2020.579892
                7546892
                33101061
                ee19f28b-ce50-4dc5-800c-6aa7a6e41806
                Copyright © 2020 Kesidou, da Costa Martins, de Windt, Brittan, Beqqali and Baker.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 03 July 2020
                : 25 August 2020
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 2, Equations: 0, References: 194, Pages: 25, Words: 19424
                Categories
                Physiology
                Review

                Anatomy & Physiology
                extracellular vesicles (ev),microrna (mir),neovascularisation,angiogenesis,cardiac,myocardial infarct,exosome (exo),regeneration

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