Introduction
Plasma cell dyscrasias such as multiple myeloma (MM) result from clonal proliferation
of plasma cells and subsequent overproduction of Igs, including free light chains.
Renal dysfunction is a core manifestation of plasma cell dyscrasias. A broad range
of kidney pathologies can occur, including light chain cast nephropathy, monoclonal
Ig deposition disease, light chain amyloidosis, light chain proximal tubulopathy,
and tubulointerstitial nephritis.1, 2, 3
Light chain proximal tubulopathy (LCPT) is a rare manifestation of monoclonal gammopathy
and is characterized by the accumulation of monotypic light chains within the proximal
tubule epithelial cells. The accumulated light chains frequently form crystals; however,
noncrystalline forms of LCPT have been described.4, 5 LCPT with crystals is associated
with a kappa light chain in the vast majority of cases, which is discovered by either
routine immunofluorescence (IF), IF, or immunohistochemistry after protease digestion
of the paraffin-embedded tissue. LCPT without crystals can be seen with both kappa-
and lambda-restricted disease. When crystals are present, ultrastructural examination
is often essential to the diagnosis as crystals may be easily missed by light microscopy.
The diagnosis of LCPT is of great clinical importance. In up to 85% of patients, kidney
biopsy showing LCPT is the initial clue to an underlying plasma cell dyscrasia before
a diagnosis has been established or the disease has come to clinical attention.
5
Therefore, the diagnosis of LCPT is crucial for appropriate patient management. We
report an unusual case of LCPT in a 59-year-old woman associated with lambda light
chain restriction with prominent intraluminal crystalline casts.
Case Presentation
A 59-year-old Caucasian woman presented with weakness, fatigue, and acute kidney injury
with signs of marked dehydration. She had a history of left-sided nephrectomy 6 years
ago due to a large staghorn calculus. Fifteen months before presentation, she was
diagnosed with MM after presenting with anemia, fatigue, multiple lytic bone lesions,
and serum protein electrophoresis showing an M-spike with monoclonal IgA lambda. Bone
marrow biopsy revealed 90% clonal plasma cells with a high-risk cytogenetic profile.
She was treated with bortezomib, dexamethasone, and lenolidomide with good response
and bone marrow biopsy 6 months after her initial diagnosis showed no residual myeloma;
however, positron emission tomography scan demonstrated persistent bony disease.
At the time of her acute presentation, serum creatinine was 3.8 mg/dl with an estimated
glomerular filtration rate of 13 ml/min per 1.73 m2 calculated by the 4-variable Modification
of Diet in Renal Disease study equation. Quantitative urine protein measurements revealed
nephrotic-range proteinuria with 4 g per 24 hours. Urine electrolyte studies were
not performed. I.v. fluid resuscitation failed to improve her renal function, and
because of significant proteinuria and concern over persistent MM, kidney biopsy was
performed.
Kidney Biopsy
Twenty glomeruli were sampled, all of which were patent and without significant pathologic
alterations. Proximal tubules demonstrated diffuse loss of brush borders, extensive
cytoplasmic vacuolization, and sloughing of cell cytoplasm into tubular lumina. Focally,
proximal tubular epithelial cells showed prominent intracytoplasmic inclusions, some
of which were sharply demarcated and rhomboid in appearance (Figure 1a). These inclusions
were brightly eosinophilic on the hematoxylin and eosin stain, pale on the periodic
acid Schiff stain, and fuschinophilic on the trichrome stain (Figure 1b). In addition,
tubules frequently showed large intraluminal collections of needle-shaped and rhomboid
structures, many of which were associated with an inflammatory reaction (Figure 1c
and d). There was no birefringence under polarized light. There was a diffuse and
mixed interstitial inflammatory infiltrate consisting primarily of mononuclear cells
with scattered neutrophils and rare eosinophils. The degree of interstitial fibrosis
and tubular atrophy was moderate, involving up to 40% to 50% of the sample. Mild chronic
vascular disease was observed without features of arteritis.
Figure 1
(a) Proximal tubules show prominent injury with coarse cytoplasmic vacuolization and
brightly eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions (hematoxylin and eosin). (b) Intracytoplasmic
inclusions were fuschinophilic on the trichrome stain (trichrome). (c) Numerous intraluminal
casts were seen, some of which showed a fine fibrillary structure (hematoxylin and
eosin), whereas (d) others demonstrated needle-like and rhomboid crystals (trichrome).
Immunohistochemical stains for a (e) lambda light chain and (f) kappa light chain
highlighted prominent light chain restriction within luminal casts and cytoplasmic
material.
Figure 1
By direct IF microscopy, there was no glomerular staining for IgG, IgA, IgM, C3, C1q,
kappa light chain, lambda light chain, fibrinogen, or albumin. The intratubular casts
and cytoplasmic inclusions showed weak staining for a lambda light chain without staining
for a kappa light chain. Because of weak staining, immunohistochemical studies for
kappa and lambda light chains were performed, which revealed strong staining of the
intratubular and intracytoplasmic material for the lambda light chain without staining
for the kappa light chain (Figure 1e and f). Ultrastructural examination of glomeruli
showed no abnormalities. The evaluation of the tubules revealed abundant intraluminal
crystalline structures with both needle-like and rhomboid configuration (Figure 2a).
Focally, proximal tubular epithelial cells showed large prominent electron dense inclusions
(Figure 2b). Overt crystal formation was not seen within proximal tubular cells. Substructural
organization was not observed.
Figure 2
(a) Ultrastructural examination revealed abundant intraluminal crystalline casts.
(b) Focally, prominent intracytoplasmic electron dense inclusions were present within
proximal tubular epithelial cells.
Figure 2
Biopsy Diagnosis
The biopsy was interpreted as acute tubular injury and/or necrosis with light chain
crystalline cast nephropathy and proximal tubulopathy (lambda light chain restricted).
Clinical Follow-up
After her acute presentation and kidney biopsy findings, the patient deferred further
therapy for her MM and initiated comfort care. She subsequently passed away from her
disease 16 days after kidney biopsy was performed.
Discussion
Light chain proximal tubulopathy is a rare manifestation of MM that results from both
overproduction and abnormal production of light chains by neoplastic plasma cells.
Prior studies have shown an estimated biopsy incidence of 0.5% to 5% in patients with
a monoclonal gammopathy.3, 4, 5 Under normal conditions, proximal tubular epithelial
cells reabsorb small volumes of free light chains through the megalin and/or cubulin
receptor, which are endocytosed and trafficked to the lysosomes for degradation.
6
In patients with paraproteinemia, the reabsorptive capacity of the proximal tubules
may be overwhelmed by the increased volume of light chains, leading to Bence-Jones
proteinuria and accumulation of pathogenic light chains within proximal tubule epithelial
cells. Also contributing to the disease process are atypical biochemical properties
of these light chains. The light chain variable domain is impervious to breakdown
by lysosomal enzymes, which leads to accumulation in renal tubular epithelial cells.7,
8 Furthermore, these abnormal light chains can have an intrinsic propensity to crystallize.
9
Light chain crystals can also accumulate in other cell types such as podocytes and
macrophages, disease processes termed light chain podocytopathy and crystal storing
histiocytosis, respectively.10, 11, 12
In addition, crystalline cast nephropathy can be a complication of plasma cell dyscrasias
and has only rarely been reported in the setting of LCPT. In most cases, the crystalline
casts take on similar morphologic features to the intracytoplasmic crystals.
5
In the described case, overt crystal formation was not seen within proximal tubular
cells; however, widespread crystalline casts were seen obstructing distal tubules.
This combination of findings shows the dynamic nature of these particular pathogenic
light chains with crystallization in distal nephron segments, likely owing to alterations
in the surrounding milieu and interaction with uromodulin (Tamm-Horsfall protein).
Crystalline LCPT is almost exclusively seen in kappa-restricted disease with only
rare examples of lambda-restricted intracytoplasmic crystals.4, 13 The presence of
crystalline casts is regarded as uncommon in LCPT and their presence is typically
only a focal finding. Haider et al.
14
reported a patient with acute kidney injury resulting from lambda-restricted intraluminal
crystalline casts; however, concurrent LCPT was not observed.
LCPT without crystals has also been reported, and these cases are more likely to be
lambda restricted than crystalline LCPT. Noncrystalline LCPT may result from light
chains that do not have the biochemical propensity to crystallize.4, 5 In some cases
without crystals (particularly those without clinical evidence of kidney injury or
Fanconi syndrome), the light chain accumulation may simply be due to physiological
uptake by proximal epithelial cells and may not represent pathogenic tubular injury.
The diagnosis of LCPT can be challenging, and is made by the identification of light
chain-restricted intracytoplasmic inclusions within the proximal tubule epithelial
cells, which may be quite focal.
5
They typically stain brightly eosinophilic on the hematoxylin and eosin stain, pale
on the periodic acid Schiff stain, and fuschinophilic on the trichrome stain. In the
largest series of such cases, Stokes et al. reported 46 cases of LCPT (40 with crystals
and 6 without). All 40 cases with crystals were kappa light chain restricted, whereas
2 of 6 noncrystalline forms were lambda light chain restricted. Nine cases demonstrated
intraluminal crystalline casts, which were only focally present, and were associated
with crystalline LCPT.
5
Larsen et al. reported 13 patients with light chain proximal tubulopathy. One patient
with lambda-restricted disease showed rare intracytoplasmic crystals by electron microscopy,
and intraluminal crystalline casts were not mentioned.
4
When evaluating a biopsy with prominent intraluminal casts or crystals, the differential
diagnosis is broad. Intraluminal casts that stain brightly eosinophilic on the hematoxylin
and eosin stain include cases of light chain cast nephropathy, myoglobinuric- or hemoglobinuric-associated
tubular injury, casts associated with mechanistic target of rapomycin (mTOR) inhibitory
toxicity, and bile cast nephropathy.15, 16, 17, 18 Intraluminal crystals can be seen
in a wide variety of conditions including primary or secondary oxalosis, phosphate
nephropathy, drug toxicity (particularly foscarnet and indinavir), and 2,8 dihydroxyadeninuria.
In the case of oxalosis, the crystals are typically rhomboid in shape, yellow in color,
and are birefringent under polarized light. Crystals associated with foscarnet and
indinavir are best seen on frozen sections and are also polarized. On electron microscopy,
these crystals appear as cleared out spaces, unlike the markedly electron dense crystals
seen in light chain-associated disease. The crystals of 2,8 dihydroxyadeninuria are
often brown in color, needle to rhomboid in shape, and are birefringent when viewed
under polarized light.19, 20, 21
In LCPT, IF studies may highlight light chain restriction in the proximal tubule epithelial
cells. In cases with crystals, routine IF microscopy on frozen tissue may show false-negative
results. In such cases, utilization of IF on paraffin-embedded tissue after digestion
with protease better highlights the light chain restriction.
22
Immunohistochemical studies can also be useful, as in our case. Electron microscopy
is of paramount importance in cases of LCPT and can highlight intracytoplasmic and
intraluminal electron dense crystalline structures as well as enlarged atypical lysosomes.
Occasionally, substructural organization, such as paracrystalline arrays, can be seen.
5
Clinically, patients with LCPT may present with acquired Fanconi syndrome characterized
by normoglyemic glycosuria, aminoaciduria, hyperphosphaturia, and type II renal tubular
acidosis.5, 8, 23 Slowly progressive chronic renal failure may occur and recurrence
after transplant has been reported.
24
The International Kidney and Monoclonal Gammopathy Research Group recommends chemotherapy
or stem cell transplant for LCPT even before worsening hematologic disease occurs.
25
Treatment of the underlying plasma cell dyscrasia in patients with LCPT has shown
varying results with a minority in one study showing complete response, while most
patients had stable hematologic disease. Kidney function showed a general trend toward
improvement in patients who were treated either with chemotherapy alone or with chemotherapy
and stem cell transplantation.
5
Furthermore, renal involvement is an independent predictor of poor outcomes in MM,
26
and the early identification of LCPT may help stratify risk and drive patient management.
In summary, LCPT is a rare but important finding on renal biopsy and requires a high
index of suspicion and thorough investigation of the sample, often including immunohistochemical
studies or IF after protease digestion on the paraffin-embedded tissue. Correct diagnosis
is crucial in driving proper patient management including chemotherapy and/or stem
cell transplant for both control of the hematologic process and treatment of kidney
disease, particularly in patients who require transplantation.
Disclosure
All the authors declared no competing interests.