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      Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Genotypes of Toxoplasma gondii in Food Animals and Humans (2000–2017) From China

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          Abstract

          Toxoplasma gondii as a food-borne pathogen, the infection of it in food animals has relation with human toxoplasmosis, but the trends and epidemiological features of T. gondii infections in food animals are rarely studied in China. The aimed of this study was to assess the epidemiology and risks of T. gondii in sheep, goats, swines, chickens, yaks, cattle and humans from 2000 to 2017 and to explore prevention and control strategies. The overall seroprevalence of T. gondii infections in food animals is 23.7% (39,194/165,417, 95%CI, 23.49–23.90%), which is significantly higher than that in humans (8.2%, 95%CI, 8.06–8.39%, 8,502/103,383) ( P < 0.0001). Compared the prevalence of T. gondii infections in animals and humans sampled from 2000 to 2010, it was significantly increased in the period 2011 to 2017 ( P < 0.0001). Compared the food animals from non-Yangtze River, animals from regions of the Yangtze River have high seroprevalence rates for T. gondii ( P < 0.0001). Furthermore, samples from the western to eastern regions of the Yellow River showed an increase in seroprevalence for T. gondii ( P < 0.0001). It was speculated that T. gondii oocysts may be transmitted by water and annual precipitation possible help the oocyst spread and retain accessible for potential hosts. Effective prevention and control strategies are including water filtration or water boiling, inactivating oocysts from feline’s feces, monitoring birds and rodents. Chinese 1 (ToxoDB#9) is the predominant genotype in food animals from China.

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          Toxoplasmosis: A history of clinical observations.

          Louis Weiss, Jitender Dubey (2009)
          It has been 100 years since Toxoplasma gondii was initially described in Tunis by Nicolle and Manceaux (1908) in the tissues of the gundi (Ctenodoactylus gundi) and in Brazil by Splendore (1908) in the tissues of a rabbit. Toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous, Apicomplexan parasite of warm-blooded animals that can cause several clinical syndromes including encephalitis, chorioretinitis, congenital infection and neonatal mortality. Fifteen years after the description of T. gondii by Nicolle and Manceaux a fatal case of toxoplasmosis in a child was reported by Janků. In 1939 Wolf, Cowen and Paige were the first to conclusively identify T. gondii as a cause of human disease. This review examines the clinical manifestations of infection with T. gondii and the history of the discovery of these manifestations.
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            Toxoplasma gondii comprises three clonal lineages: correlation of parasite genotype with human disease.

            D K Howe, L D Sibley (1995)
            The population genetic structure of Toxoplasma gondii was determined by multilocus restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis at 6 loci in 106 independent isolates from humans and animals. Phylogenetic and statistical analyses indicated a highly unusual population structure consisting of 3 widespread clonal lineages. Extensively mixed genotypes were only apparent in 4 strains, which indicated that, while not separate species, sexual recombination between the 3 lineages is exceedingly rare in natural populations. T. gondii is a major cause of subclinical human infection and an important opportunistic pathogen that causes severe disease in immunocompromised patients. While strains from all 3 lineages were isolated from humans, the majority of human toxoplasmosis cases were associated with strains of a type II genotype. The correlation of specific clonal lineages with human toxoplasmosis has important implications for development of vaccines, drug treatments, and diagnostic protocols.
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              Risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnancy. Results of a prospective case-control study in Norway.

              Janice Eng, A Eskild, Dan B Pedersen … (1996)
              From 1992 to 1994, a prospective case-control study designed to identify preventable risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnancy was conducted in Norway. Case-patients were identified through a serologic screening program encompassing 37,000 pregnant women and through sporadic antenatal testing for Toxoplasma infection. A total of 63 pregnant women with serologic evidence of recent primary T. gondii infection and 128 seronegative control women matched by age, stage of pregnancy, expected date of delivery, and geographic area were enrolled. The following factors were found to be independently associated with an increased risk of maternal infection in conditional logistic regression analysis (in order of decreasing attributable fractions): 1) eating raw or undercooked minced meat products (odds ratio (OR) = 4.1, p = 0.007); 2) eating unwashed raw vegetables or fruits (OR = 2.4, p = 0.03); 3) eating raw or undercooked mutton (OR = 11.4, p = 0.005); 4) eating raw or undercooked pork (OR = 3.4, p = 0.03); 5) cleaning the cat litter box (OR = 5.5, p = 0.02); and 6) washing the kitchen knives infrequently after preparation of raw meat, prior to handling another food item (OR = 7.3, p = 0.04). In univariate analysis, travelling to countries outside of Scandinavia was identified as a significant risk factor, but this variable was not independently associated with infection after data were controlled for factors more directly related to the modes of infection.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Front Microbiol
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Front Microbiol
                Journal ID (publisher-id): Front. Microbiol.
                Title: Frontiers in Microbiology
                Publisher: Frontiers Media S.A.
                ISSN (Electronic): 1664-302X
                Publication date (Electronic): 11 September 2018
                Publication date Collection: 2018
                Volume: 9
                Electronic Location Identifier: 2108
                Affiliations
                [1] 1College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University , Zhengzhou, China
                [2] 2College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University , Beijing, China
                Author notes

                Edited by: Zhihong Sun, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, China

                Reviewed by: Tecia Maria Ulisses Carvalho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; De-hua Lai, Sun Yat-sen University, China

                *Correspondence: Yurong Yang, yangyu7712@ 123456sina.com

                †Present address: Yurong Yang, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China

                This article was submitted to Food Microbiology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Microbiology

                Article
                DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02108
                PMC ID: 6141634
                PubMed ID: 30254613
                SO-VID: f0acd9b0-2e12-4e78-bfcf-ee0defa03b68
                Copyright © Copyright © 2018 Dong, Su, Lu, Wang, Liu, Jian and Yang.
                License:

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                Date received : 27 May 2018
                Date accepted : 20 August 2018
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 75, Pages: 10, Words: 0
                Categories
                Subject: Microbiology
                Subject: Perspective

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Microbiology & Virology
                Keywords: toxoplasma gondii,sheep,goats,swines,chickens,cattle,humans,china
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Microbiology & Virology
                Keywords: toxoplasma gondii, sheep, goats, swines, chickens, cattle, humans, china

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