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      Hyperscanning Alone Cannot Prove Causality. Multibrain Stimulation Can

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          Abstract

          Brains that work together, couple together through interbrain synchrony. Does interbrain synchrony causally facilitate social interaction? This question cannot be answered by simply recording from multiple brains (hyperscanning). It instead requires causal protocols entailing their simultaneous stimulation (multibrain stimulation). We highlight promising findings and future horizons of this nascent field.

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          A mechanism for cognitive dynamics: neuronal communication through neuronal coherence.

          Pascal Fries (2006)
          At any one moment, many neuronal groups in our brain are active. Microelectrode recordings have characterized the activation of single neurons and fMRI has unveiled brain-wide activation patterns. Now it is time to understand how the many active neuronal groups interact with each other and how their communication is flexibly modulated to bring about our cognitive dynamics. I hypothesize that neuronal communication is mechanistically subserved by neuronal coherence. Activated neuronal groups oscillate and thereby undergo rhythmic excitability fluctuations that produce temporal windows for communication. Only coherently oscillating neuronal groups can interact effectively, because their communication windows for input and for output are open at the same times. Thus, a flexible pattern of coherence defines a flexible communication structure, which subserves our cognitive flexibility.
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            Correlated Neural Activity and Encoding of Behavior across Brains of Socially Interacting Animals

            Lyle Kingsbury, Shan Huang, Jun Jun Wang … (2019)
            Social interactions involve complex decision-making tasks that are shaped by dynamic, mutual feedback between participants. An open question is whether and how emergent properties may arise across brains of socially interacting individuals to influence social decisions. By simultaneously performing microendoscopic calcium imaging in pairs of socially interacting mice, we find that animals exhibit interbrain correlations of neural activity in the prefrontal cortex that are dependent on ongoing social interaction. Activity synchrony arises from two neuronal populations that separately encode one’s own behaviors and those of the social partner. Strikingly, interbrain correlations predict future social interactions as well as dominance relationships in a competitive context. Together, our study provides conclusive evidence for interbrain synchrony in rodents, uncovers how synchronization arises from activity at the singlecell level, and presents a role for interbrain neural activity coupling as a property of multi-animal systems in coordinating and sustaining social interactions between individuals. When two animals interact, neural activity across their brains synchronizes in a way that predicts how they will behave and how they form social dominance relationships.
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              A New Unifying Account of the Roles of Neuronal Entrainment

              Peter Lakatos, Joachim Gross, Gregor Thut (2019)
              Rhythms are a fundamental and defining feature of neuronal activity in animals and humans. This rhythmic brain activity interacts in complex ways with rhythms in the internal and external environment, which is studied under the heading of ‘neuronal entrainment’ and is attracting increasing attention due to its proposed role in a multitude of sensory and cognitive processes. At the interface between cognition and the environment, some senses such as touch and vision sample the environment rhythmically, while other senses – like audition – are faced with mostly rhythmic inputs. Entrainment couples rhythmic brain activity to external and internal rhythmic events serving fine grained routing and modulation of external and internal signals across multiple spatial and temporal hierarchies. This interaction between brain and its environment can be experimentally probed and even modified by rhythmic sensory stimuli or invasive and non-invasive neuromodulation techniques. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the topic and propose a theoretical framework of how neuronal entrainment dynamically structures information from incoming neuronal, bodily and environmental sources (Dynamic Information Selection by Entrainment, DISE). We discuss the different types of neuronal entrainment, summarize the conceptual advances in the field, and extract converging evidence on its general principles. In brief: Lakatos, Gross, and Thut review the evidence for neuronal entrainment by environmental, self-produced, and neuromodulatory rhythms, which leads them to propose a new, unifying account of the role of neuronal entrainment in the selection and structuring of information - taking into account the brain in a wider context.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Giacomo Novembre
                Gian Domenico Iannetti
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Trends Cogn Sci
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Trends Cogn Sci
                Title: Trends in Cognitive Sciences
                Publisher: Elsevier Science
                ISSN (Print): 1364-6613
                ISSN (Electronic): 1879-307X
                Publication date PMC-release: 1 February 2021
                Publication date (Print): February 2021
                Volume: 25
                Issue: 2
                Pages: 96-99
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Neuroscience and Behaviour Laboratory, Italian Institute of Technology, Rome, Italy
                [2 ]Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, UK
                Author notes
                Article
                Publisher Item ID: S1364-6613(20)30275-8
                DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2020.11.003
                PMC ID: 7994246
                PubMed ID: 33293210
                SO-VID: f24009b6-1aa3-4a42-a7c3-6e3bcf800cf6
                Copyright © © 2020 The Authors
                License:

                This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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                Categories
                Subject: Forum

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Neurosciences
                Keywords: social interaction,hyperscanning,causality,multibrain stimulation,joint action
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Neurosciences
                Keywords: social interaction, hyperscanning, causality, multibrain stimulation, joint action

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