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      Bats, emerging infectious diseases, and the rabies paradigm revisited

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          Abstract

          The significance of bats as sources of emerging infectious diseases has been increasingly appreciated, and new data have been accumulated rapidly during recent years. For some emerging pathogens the bat origin has been confirmed (such as lyssaviruses, henipaviruses, coronaviruses), for other it has been suggested (filoviruses). Several recently identified viruses remain to be ‘orphan’ but have a potential for further emergence (such as Tioman, Menangle, and Pulau viruses). In the present review we summarize information on major bat-associated emerging infections and discuss specific characteristics of bats as carriers of pathogens (from evolutionary, ecological, and immunological positions). We also discuss drivers and forces of an infectious disease emergence and describe various existing and potential approaches for control and prevention of such infections at individual, populational, and societal levels.

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          Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China.

          Y Guan (2003)
          A novel coronavirus (SCoV) is the etiological agent of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). SCoV-like viruses were isolated from Himalayan palm civets found in a live-animal market in Guangdong, China. Evidence of virus infection was also detected in other animals (including a raccoon dog, Nyctereutes procyonoides) and in humans working at the same market. All the animal isolates retain a 29-nucleotide sequence that is not found in most human isolates. The detection of SCoV-like viruses in small, live wild mammals in a retail market indicates a route of interspecies transmission, although the natural reservoir is not known.
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            Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-like virus in Chinese horseshoe bats.

            S K P Lau, P Woo, K. S. M. Li … (2005)
            Although the finding of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in caged palm civets from live animal markets in China has provided evidence for interspecies transmission in the genesis of the SARS epidemic, subsequent studies suggested that the civet may have served only as an amplification host for SARS-CoV. In a surveillance study for CoV in noncaged animals from the wild areas of the Hong Kong Special Administration Region, we identified a CoV closely related to SARS-CoV (bat-SARS-CoV) from 23 (39%) of 59 anal swabs of wild Chinese horseshoe bats (Rhinolophus sinicus) by using RT-PCR. Sequencing and analysis of three bat-SARS-CoV genomes from samples collected at different dates showed that bat-SARS-CoV is closely related to SARS-CoV from humans and civets. Phylogenetic analysis showed that bat-SARS-CoV formed a distinct cluster with SARS-CoV as group 2b CoV, distantly related to known group 2 CoV. Most differences between the bat-SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV genomes were observed in the spike genes, ORF 3 and ORF 8, which are the regions where most variations also were observed between human and civet SARS-CoV genomes. In addition, the presence of a 29-bp insertion in ORF 8 of bat-SARS-CoV genome, not in most human SARS-CoV genomes, suggests that it has a common ancestor with civet SARS-CoV. Antibody against recombinant bat-SARS-CoV nucleocapsid protein was detected in 84% of Chinese horseshoe bats by using an enzyme immunoassay. Neutralizing antibody to human SARS-CoV also was detected in bats with lower viral loads. Precautions should be exercised in the handling of these animals.
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              Isolation of Hendra virus from pteropid bats: a natural reservoir of Hendra virus.

              K. Halpin, P Young, H E Field … (2000)
              Since it was first described in Australia in 1994, Hendra virus (HeV) has caused two outbreaks of fatal disease in horses and humans, and an isolated fatal horse case. Our preliminary studies revealed a high prevalence of neutralizing antibodies to HeV in bats of the genus PTEROPUS:, but it was unclear whether this was due to infection with HeV or a related virus. We developed the hypothesis that HeV excretion from bats might be related to the birthing process and we targeted the reproductive tract for virus isolation. Three virus isolates were obtained from the uterine fluid and a pool of foetal lung and liver from one grey-headed flying-fox (Pteropus poliocephalus), and from the foetal lung of one black flying-fox (P. alecto). Antigenically, these isolates appeared to be closely related to HeV, returning positive results on immunofluorescent antibody staining and constant-serum varying-virus neutralization tests. Using an HeV-specific oligonucleotide primer pair, genomic sequences of the isolates were amplified. Sequencing of 200 nucleotides in the matrix gene identified that these three isolates were identical to HeV. Isolations were confirmed after RNA extracted from original material was positive for HeV RNA when screened on an HeV Taqman assay. The isolation of HeV from pteropid bats corroborates our earlier serological and epidemiological evidence that they are a natural reservoir host of the virus.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Emerg Health Threats J
                Journal ID (publisher-id): EHTJ
                Title: Emerging Health Threats Journal
                Publisher: CoAction Publishing
                ISSN (Electronic): 1752-8550
                Publication date (Electronic): 20 June 2011
                Publication date Collection: 2011
                Volume: 4
                Electronic Location Identifier: 10.3402/ehtj.v4i0.7159
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
                [2 ]Population Biology, Ecology, and Evolution Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
                Author notes
                [* ] Ivan V. Kuzmin, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, MS G33, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA. Tel: +1 404 639 1050. Fax: +1 404 639 1564. Email: ibk3@ 123456cdc.gov
                Article
                Publisher ID: EHTJ-4-7159
                DOI: 10.3402/ehtj.v4i0.7159
                PMC ID: 3168224
                PubMed ID: 24149032
                SO-VID: f2653dd8-7a73-40ab-bf5e-d9fb5b5bdbc4
                Copyright © © 2011 Ivan V. Kuzmin et al.
                License:

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Date received : 05 April 2011
                Date revision received : 31 May 2011
                Date accepted : 31 May 2011
                Categories
                Subject: Review Article

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Public health
                Keywords: filovirus,rabies,prevention,control,bats,henipavirus,lyssavirus,coronavirus,chiroptera,emerging infectious disease
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Public health
                Keywords: filovirus, rabies, prevention, control, bats, henipavirus, lyssavirus, coronavirus, chiroptera, emerging infectious disease

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