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      Skeletal Metabolism, Fracture Risk, and Fracture Outcomes in Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes

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          Abstract

          Fracture risk is significantly increased in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and individuals with diabetes experience worse fracture outcomes than normoglycemic individuals. Factors that increase fracture risk include lower bone mass in type 1 diabetes and compromised skeletal quality and strength despite preserved bone density in type 2 diabetes, as well as the effects of comorbidities such as diabetic macro- and microvascular complications. In this Perspective, we assess the developing scientific knowledge regarding the epidemiology and pathophysiology of skeletal fragility in patients with diabetes and the emerging data on the prediction, treatment, and outcomes of fractures in individuals with type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

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          Systematic review of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus and risk of fracture.

          The authors conducted a systematic review of published data on the association between diabetes mellitus and fracture. The authors searched MEDLINE through June 2006 and examined the reference lists of pertinent articles (limited to studies in humans). Summary relative risks and 95% confidence intervals were calculated with a random-effects model. The 16 eligible studies (two case-control studies and 14 cohort studies) included 836,941 participants and 139,531 incident cases of fracture. Type 2 diabetes was associated with an increased risk of hip fracture in both men (summary relative risk (RR) = 2.8, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.2, 6.6) and women (summary RR = 2.1, 95% CI: 1.6, 2.7). Results were consistent between studies of men and women and between studies conducted in the United States and Europe. The association between type of diabetes and hip fracture incidence was stronger for type 1 diabetes (summary RR = 6.3, 95% CI: 2.6, 15.1) than for type 2 diabetes (summary RR = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.3, 2.2). Type 2 diabetes was weakly associated with fractures at other sites, and most effect estimates were not statistically significant. These findings strongly support an association between both type 1 and type 2 diabetes and increased risk of hip fracture in men and women.
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            Association of BMD and FRAX score with risk of fracture in older adults with type 2 diabetes.

            Type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) is associated with higher bone mineral density (BMD) and paradoxically with increased fracture risk. It is not known if low BMD, central to fracture prediction in older adults, identifies fracture risk in patients with DM. To determine if femoral neck BMD T score and the World Health Organization Fracture Risk Algorithm (FRAX) score are associated with hip and nonspine fracture risk in older adults with type 2 DM. Data from 3 prospective observational studies with adjudicated fracture outcomes (Study of Osteoporotic Fractures [December 1998-July 2008]; Osteoporotic Fractures in Men Study [March 2000-March 2009]; and Health, Aging, and Body Composition study [April 1997-June 2007]) were analyzed in older community-dwelling adults (9449 women and 7436 men) in the United States. Self-reported incident fractures, which were verified by radiology reports. Of 770 women with DM, 84 experienced a hip fracture and 262 a nonspine fracture during a mean (SD) follow-up of 12.6 (5.3) years. Of 1199 men with DM, 32 experienced a hip fracture and 133 a nonspine fracture during a mean (SD) follow-up of 7.5 (2.0) years. Age-adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) for 1-unit decrease in femoral neck BMD T score in women with DM were 1.88 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.43-2.48) for hip fracture and 1.52 (95% CI, 1.31-1.75) for nonspine fracture, and in men with DM were 5.71 (95% CI, 3.42-9.53) for hip fracture and 2.17 (95% CI, 1.75-2.69) for nonspine fracture. The FRAX score was also associated with fracture risk in participants with DM (HRs for 1-unit increase in FRAX hip fracture score, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.03-1.07, for women with DM and 1.16; 95% CI, 1.07-1.27, for men with DM; HRs for 1-unit increase in FRAX osteoporotic fracture score, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.02-1.05, for women with DM and 1.09; 95% CI, 1.04-1.14, for men with DM). However, for a given T score and age or for a given FRAX score, participants with DM had a higher fracture risk than those without DM. For a similar fracture risk, participants with DM had a higher T score than participants without DM. For hip fracture, the estimated mean difference in T score for women was 0.59 (95% CI, 0.31-0.87) and for men was 0.38 (95% CI, 0.09-0.66). Among older adults with type 2 DM, femoral neck BMD T score and FRAX score were associated with hip and nonspine fracture risk; however, in these patients compared with participants without DM, the fracture risk was higher for a given T score and age or for a given FRAX score.
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              In vivo assessment of bone quality in postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes.

              Although patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) are at significant risk for well-recognized diabetic complications, including macrovascular disease, retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy, it is also clear that T2D patients are at increased risk for fragility fractures. Furthermore, fragility fractures in patients with T2D occur at higher bone mineral density (BMD) values compared to nondiabetic controls, suggesting abnormalities in bone material strength (BMS) and/or bone microarchitecture (bone "quality"). Thus, we performed in vivo microindentation testing of the tibia to directly measure BMS in 60 postmenopausal women (age range, 50-80 years) including 30 patients diagnosed with T2D for >10 years and 30 age-matched, nondiabetic controls. Regional BMD was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA); cortical and trabecular bone microarchitecture was assessed from high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HRpQCT) images of the distal radius and tibia. Compared to controls, T2D patients had significantly lower BMS: unadjusted (-11.7%; p<0.001); following adjustment for body mass index (BMI) (-10.5%; p<0.001); and following additional adjustment for age, hypertension, nephropathy, neuropathy, retinopathy, and vascular disease (-9.2%; p=0.022). By contrast, after adjustment for confounding by BMI, T2D patients had bone microarchitecture and BMD that were not significantly different than controls; however, radial cortical porosity tended to be higher in the T2D patients. In addition, patients with T2D had significantly reduced serum markers of bone turnover (all p<0.001) compared to controls. Of note, in patients with T2D, the average glycated hemoglobin level over the previous 10 years was negatively correlated with BMS (r=-0.41; p=0.026). In conclusion, these findings represent the first demonstration of compromised BMS in patients with T2D. Furthermore, our results confirm previous studies demonstrating low bone turnover in patients with T2D and highlight the potential detrimental effects of prolonged hyperglycemia on bone quality. Thus, the skeleton needs to be recognized as another important target tissue subject to diabetic complications. © 2014 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research. © 2014 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Diabetes
                Diabetes
                diabetes
                diabetes
                Diabetes
                Diabetes
                American Diabetes Association
                0012-1797
                1939-327X
                July 2016
                13 June 2016
                : 65
                : 7
                : 1757-1766
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
                [2] 2Division of Bone and Mineral Diseases, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
                [3] 3Department of Medicine III and Center for Healthy Aging, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany and Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
                [4] 4Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, Metabolism, and Nutrition Research and the Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
                [5] 5Departments of Orthopaedic Surgery and Physiology and Pharmacology and Center for Diabetes and Endocrine Research, The University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, Toledo, OH
                [6] 6Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
                Author notes
                Corresponding author: Deborah E. Sellmeyer, dsellme1@ 123456jhmi.edu .
                Article
                0063
                10.2337/db16-0063
                4915586
                27329951
                f341b263-9955-4270-a0b2-76eb57c3d76e
                © 2016 by the American Diabetes Association. Readers may use this article as long as the work is properly cited, the use is educational and not for profit, and the work is not altered.
                History
                : 13 January 2016
                : 23 March 2016
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 95, Pages: 10
                Funding
                Funded by: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Sonderforschungsbereiche/Transregio 67
                Award ID: Project B2
                Funded by: National Institutes of Health http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000002
                Award ID: AG004875
                Award ID: AR027065
                Funded by: American Diabetes Association http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000963
                Award ID: 7-13-BS-089
                Categories
                Perspectives in Diabetes

                Endocrinology & Diabetes
                Endocrinology & Diabetes

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