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      The Effect of Learning on Feedback-Related Potentials in Adolescents with Dyslexia: An EEG-ERP Study

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          Abstract

          Introduction

          Individuals with dyslexia exhibit associated learning deficits and impaired executive functions. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is a learning-based task that relies heavily on executive functioning, in particular, attention shift and working memory. Performance during early and late phases of a series within the task represents learning and implementation of a newly learned rule. Here, we aimed to examine two event-related potentials associated with learning, feedback-related negativity (FRN)-P300 complex, in individuals with dyslexia performing the WCST.

          Methods

          Adolescents with dyslexia and age-matched typical readers performed the Madrid card sorting test (MCST), a computerized version of the WCST. Task performance, reading measures, and cognitive measures were collected. FRN and the P300 complex were acquired using the event-related potentials methodology and were compared in early vs late errors within a series.

          Results

          While performing the MCST, both groups showed a significant reduction in average reaction times and a trend toward decreased error rates. Typical readers performed consistently better than individuals with dyslexia. FRN amplitudes in early phases were significantly smaller in dyslexic readers, but were essentially equivalent to typical readers in the late phase. P300 amplitudes were initially smaller among readers with dyslexia and tended to decrease further in late phases. Differences in FRN amplitudes for early vs late phases were positively correlated with those of P300 amplitudes in the entire sample.

          Conclusion

          Individuals with dyslexia demonstrate a behavioral and electrophysiological change within single series of the MCST. However, learning patterns seem to differ between individuals with dyslexia and typical readers. We attribute these differences to the lower baseline performance of individuals with dyslexia. We suggest that these changes represent a fast compensatory mechanism, demonstrating the importance of learning strategies on reading among individuals with dyslexia.

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          Most cited references27

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          The neural basis of human error processing: reinforcement learning, dopamine, and the error-related negativity.

          The authors present a unified account of 2 neural systems concerned with the development and expression of adaptive behaviors: a mesencephalic dopamine system for reinforcement learning and a "generic" error-processing system associated with the anterior cingulate cortex. The existence of the error-processing system has been inferred from the error-related negativity (ERN), a component of the event-related brain potential elicited when human participants commit errors in reaction-time tasks. The authors propose that the ERN is generated when a negative reinforcement learning signal is conveyed to the anterior cingulate cortex via the mesencephalic dopamine system and that this signal is used by the anterior cingulate cortex to modify performance on the task at hand. They provide support for this proposal using both computational modeling and psychophysiological experimentation.
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            Stimulus novelty, task relevance and the visual evoked potential in man.

            Visual evoked potentials (VEPs) were recorded from normal adult subjects performing in a visual discrimination task. Subjects counted the number of presentations of the numeral 4 which was interposed rarely and randomly within a sequence of tachistoscopically flashed background stimuli (numeral 2s). Intrusive, task-irrelevant (not counted) stimuli were also interspersed rarely and randomly in the sequence of 2s; these stimuli were of two types: simples, which were easily recognizable (e.g., geometric figures), and novels, which were completely unrecognizable (i.e., complex, colorful patterns). It was found that the simples and the counted 4s evoked posteriorly distributed P3 waves (latency 380-430 msec) while the irrelevant novels evoked large, frontally distributed P3 waves (latency 360-380 msec). These large, frontal P3 waves to novels were also found to be preceded by large N2 waves (latency 278 msec). These findings indicate that "the P3" wave is not a unitary phenomenon but should be considered in terms of a family of waves, differing in their brain generators and in their psychological correlates. These late positive components are discussed in terms of task-relevance, recognition and Pavlov's "what is it" response.
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              • Article: not found

              Automaticity, retrieval processes, and reading: a longitudinal study in average and impaired readers.

              In this longitudinal investigation, the development of word-retrieval speed and its relationship to reading was studied in 72 average and 11 severely impaired readers in the kindergarten to grade 2 period (5-8 years). Subjects received a battery of 3 reading measures and 4 continuous naming tests with varied stimulus requirements. Results indicated that the relationship of retrieval speed to reading is a function of development and the correspondence between higher- and lower-level processes in the specific retrieval and reading measures. As automaticity in retrieval developed in average readers, naming-speed/reading relationships moved from strong, general predictions to highly differentiated ones. The strongest correlations were between naming speed for graphological stimuli and lower-level reading tasks. Impaired readers performed slower than average readers on all naming measures across all years, particularly on graphological symbols. 3 dyslexic subgroups emerged: the largest was globally impaired across all naming rate and reading tasks; 2 smaller subgroups had early specific, retrieval-rate deficits and dissociated reading deficits.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, USA )
                1932-6203
                2014
                20 June 2014
                : 9
                : 6
                : e100486
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Pediatric Neurology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
                [2 ]Pediatric Neuroimaging Research Consortium, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
                [3 ]Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities, Faculty of Education, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
                The Ohio State University, Center for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Brain Imaging, United States of America
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Conceived and designed the experiments: THK. Performed the experiments: THK. Analyzed the data: THK DK. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: THK. Wrote the paper: THK DK.

                Article
                PONE-D-13-49336
                10.1371/journal.pone.0100486
                4065048
                24950233
                f45e75d2-7152-4d5d-aa1a-c2f97f642c8b
                Copyright @ 2014

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 26 November 2013
                : 28 May 2014
                Page count
                Pages: 10
                Funding
                This study was supported by the Edmond J Safra foundation. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Neuroscience
                Cognitive Neuroscience
                Working Memory
                Cognitive Science
                Cognitive Psychology
                Learning
                Behavioral Neuroscience
                Learning and Memory
                Physiology
                Electrophysiology
                Psychology
                Behavior
                Human Performance
                Developmental Psychology
                Computer and Information Sciences
                Computer Applications
                Computer-Assisted Instruction
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Diagnostic Medicine
                Clinical Neurophysiology
                Social Sciences

                Uncategorized
                Uncategorized

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