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      No need to touch this: Bimanual haptic slant adaptation does not require touch

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          Abstract

          In our daily life, we often interact with objects using both hands raising the question the question to what extent information between the hands is shared. It has, for instance, been shown that curvature adaptation aftereffects can transfer from the adapted hand to the non-adapted hand. However, this transfer only occurred for dynamic exploration, e.g. by moving a single finger over a surface, but not for static exploration when keeping static contact with the surface and combining the information from different parts of the hand. This raises the question to what extent adaptation to object shape is shared between the hands when both hands are used in static fashion simultaneously and the object shape estimates require information from both hands. Here we addressed this question in three experiments using a slant adaptation paradigm. In Experiment 1 we investigated whether an aftereffect of static bimanual adaptation occurs at all and whether it transfers to conditions in which one hand was moving. In Experiment 2 participants adapted either to a felt slanted surface or simply be holding their hands in mid-air at similar positions, to investigate to what extent the effects of static bimanual adaptation are posture-based rather than object based. Experiment 3 further explored the idea that bimanual adaptation is largely posture based. We found that bimanual adaptation using static touch did lead to aftereffects when using the same static exploration mode for testing. However, the aftereffect did not transfer to any exploration mode that included a dynamic component. Moreover, we found similar aftereffects both with and without a haptic surface. Thus, we conclude that static bimanual adaptation is of proprioceptive nature and does not occur at the level at which the object is represented.

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          The kinaesthetic senses.

          This review of kinaesthesia, the senses of limb position and limb movement, has been prompted by recent new observations on the role of motor commands in position sense. They make it necessary to reassess the present-day views of the underlying neural mechanisms. Peripheral receptors which contribute to kinaesthesia are muscle spindles and skin stretch receptors. Joint receptors do not appear to play a major role at most joints. The evidence supports the existence of two separate senses, the sense of limb position and the sense of limb movement. Receptors such as muscle spindle primary endings are able to contribute to both senses. While limb position and movement can be signalled by both skin and muscle receptors, new evidence has shown that if limb muscles are contracting, an additional cue is provided by centrally generated motor command signals. Observations using neuroimaging techniques indicate the involvement of both the cerebellum and parietal cortex in a multi-sensory comparison, involving operation of a forward model between the feedback during a movement and its expected profile, based on past experience. Involvement of motor command signals in kinaesthesia has implications for interpretations of certain clinical conditions.
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            The role of vertical mirror symmetry in visual shape detection.

            The goal of our study is a better understanding of the role of vertical mirror symmetry in perceptual grouping. With a simple psychophysical task and a set of controlled stimuli, we investigated whether vertical mirror symmetry acts as a cue in figure-ground segregation. We asked participants to indicate which of two sequentially presented Gabor arrays contained a visual shape. The shape was defined by a subset of Gabor elements positioned along the outline of an unfamiliar shape. By adding orientation noise to these Gabor elements, the shape percept became less salient. Across the different noise levels, symmetric shapes were easier to detect than asymmetric ones. This finding indicates that vertical mirror symmetry is indeed used as a cue in perceptual grouping.
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              Proprioceptive activity in primate primary somatosensory cortex during active arm reaching movements.

              1. We studied the activity of 254 cells in the primary somatosensory cortex (SI) responding to inputs from peripheral proprioceptors in a variety of tasks requiring active reaching movements of the contralateral arm. 2. The majority of cells with receptive fields on the proximal arm (shoulder and elbow) were broadly and unimodally tuned for movement direction, often with approximately sinusoidal tuning curves similar to those seen in motor and parietal cortex. 3. The predominant temporal response profiles were directionally tuned phasic bursts during movement and tonic activity that varied with different arm postures. 4. Most cells showed both phasic and tonic response components to differing degrees, and the population formed a continuum from purely phasic to purely tonic cells with no evidence of separate distinct phasic and tonic populations. This indicates that the initial cortical neuronal correlates of the introspectively distinguishable sensations of movement and position are represented in an overlapping or distributed manner in SI. 5. The directional tuning of the phasic and tonic response components of most cells was generally similar, although rarely identical. 6. We tested 62 cells during similar active and passive arm movements. Many cells showed large differences in their responses in the two conditions, presumably due to changes in peripheral receptor discharge during active muscle contractions. 7. We tested 86 cells in a convergent movement task in which monkeys made reaching movements to a single central target from eight peripheral starting positions. A majority of the cells (46 of 86, 53.5%) showed a movement direction-related hysteresis in which their tonic activity after movement to the central target varied with the direction by which the arm moved to the target. The directionality of this hysteresis was coupled with the movement-related directional tuning of the cells. 8. We recorded the discharge of 93 cells as the monkeys performed the task while compensating for loads in different directions. The large majority of cells showed a statistically significant modulation of activity as a function of load direction, which was qualitatively similar to that seen in motor cortex under similar task conditions. Quantitatively, however, the sensitivity of SI proprioceptive cells to loads was less than that seen in motor cortex but greater than in parietal cortex. 9. We interpret these results in terms of their implications for the central representation of the spatiotemporal form ("kinematics") of arm movements and postures. Most importantly, the results emphasize the important influence of muscle contractile activity on the central proprioceptive representation of active movements.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: Project administrationRole: SoftwareRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: SoftwareRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                31 July 2020
                2020
                : 15
                : 7
                : e0236824
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Cognitive Neuroscience Department and Cognitive Interaction Technology—Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
                [2 ] Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dynamics & Control group, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
                [3 ] Applied Cognitive Psychology, Institute for Psychology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
                [4 ] Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom
                Birkbeck University of London, UNITED KINGDOM
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6017-4908
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0590-9347
                Article
                PONE-D-20-05450
                10.1371/journal.pone.0236824
                7394449
                32735569
                f461fe33-cff5-4d04-84d5-cd5e0c9e2cc0
                © 2020 Glowania et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 25 February 2020
                : 14 July 2020
                Page count
                Figures: 7, Tables: 0, Pages: 24
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100005721, Universität Bielefeld;
                Award ID: EXC-277
                Award Recipient :
                Author CG was supported by the Cluster of Excellence Cognitive Interaction Technology ’CITEC’ (EXC 277) at Bielefeld University, which is funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG). We acknowledge support for the Article Processing Charge by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the Open Access Publication Fund of Bielefeld University. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
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                Custom metadata
                All raw data files are available from the figshare database (Experiment 1: 10.6084/m9.figshare.11889564; Experiment 2: 10.6084/m9.figshare.11889606; Experiment 3: 10.6084/m9.figshare.11889609).

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