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      A new spectrophotometric method to detect residual amounts of peroxide after reprocessing hemodialysis filters Translated title: Um novo método espectrofotométrico para detectar níveis residuais de peróxido após o reprocessamento de filtros de hemodiálise

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          Abstract

          ABSTRACT Objective: Reuse of hemodialysis filters is a standard practice and the sterilizing chemical most often employed is peracetic acid. Before starting the dialysis session, filters and lines are checked for residual levels of peracetic acid by means of a non-quantitative colorimetric test that is visually interpreted. The objective of this study was to investigate a new quantitative spectrophotometric test for detection of peracetic acid residues. Methods: Peracetic acid solutions were prepared in concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 10 ppm. A reagent (potassium-titanium oxide + sulfuric acid) was added to each sample in proportions varying from 0.08 to 2.00 drops/mL of solution. Optical densities were determined in a spectrophotometer using a 405-nm filter and subjected to visual qualitative test by different observers. Results: A relation between peroxide concentrations and respective optical densities was observed and it was linear with R2 > 0.90 for all reagent/substrate proportions. The peak optical densities were obtained with the reagent/substrate ratio of 0.33 drops/mL, which was later standardized for all further experiments. Both qualitative and quantitative tests yielded a specificity of 100%. The quantitative test was more sensitive than the qualitative test and resulted in higher positive and negative predictive values. There was a difference between observers in the qualitative test and some samples with significant amounts of peroxide were not detected. Conclusion: A quantitative spectrophotometric test may improve detection of residues of peracetic acid when compared to the standard visual qualitative test. This innovation may contribute to the development of safer standards for reuse of hemodialysis filters.

          Translated abstract

          RESUMO Objetivo: A reutilização de filtros de hemodiálise é uma prática disseminada e a substância química esterilizante mais empregada é o ácido peracético. Antes de iniciar a sessão de diálise, os filtros e as linhas são verificados em relação a níveis residuais de ácido peracético por meio de teste colorimétrico não quantitativo, com interpretação visual. O objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar um novo teste espectrofotométrico quantitativo para detecção de resíduos de ácido peracético. Métodos: As soluções de ácido peracético foram preparadas em concentrações que variam de 0,01 a 10 ppm. O reagente (óxido de potássio-titânio + ácido sulfúrico) foi acrescentado a cada amostra em proporções que variaram de 0,08 a 2,00 gotas/mL de solução. As densidades ópticas foram determinadas em um espectrofotômetro com filtro de 405 nm e submetidas a um teste visual qualitativo por diferentes observadores. Resultados: Observou-se a relação linear entre as concentrações de peróxido e as respectivas densidades ópticas com R2 > 0,90 para todas as proporções de reagente/substrato. As maiores densidades ópticas foram obtidas com a proporção reagente/substrato de 0,33 gotas/mL, que foi padronizada para todos os experimentos posteriores. Os testes qualitativos e quantitativos apresentaram especificidade de 100%. O teste quantitativo foi mais sensível do que o qualitativo e apresentou maiores valores preditivos positivos e negativos. Houve uma diferença entre os observadores no teste qualitativo e algumas amostras com quantidade significativa de peróxido não foram detectadas. Conclusão: O teste espectrofotométrico quantitativo pode melhorar a detecção de resíduos de ácido peracético em comparação ao teste visual qualitativo padrão. Essa inovação pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento de padrões mais seguros na reutilização de filtros de hemodiálise.

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          National surveillance of dialysis-associated diseases in the United States, 2002.

          In December 2002, all U.S. chronic hemodialysis centers were surveyed regarding selected patient care practices and dialysis-associated diseases. The results were compared with similar surveys conducted in previous years. In 2002, 85% of hemodialysis centers were free-standing and 81% operated for profit; the proportion of centers operating for profit has increased each year since 1985. During 1995-2002, the percentage of patients who received dialysis through central catheters increased from 13% to 26%; this trend is worrisome, as infections and antimicrobial use are higher among patients receiving dialysis through catheters. However, during the same period, the percentage of patients receiving dialysis through fistulas increased from 22% to 33%. The percentage of centers reporting one or more patients infected or colonized with vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) increased from 12% in 1995 to 30% in 2002. During 1997-2002, the percentage of patients vaccinated against hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection increased from 47% to 56% and the percentage of staff vaccinated increased from 87% to 90%. In 2002, routine testing for antibody to hepatitis C virus (anti-HCV) was performed on patients at 64% of centers; anti-HCV was found in 7.8% of patients. In 2001, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) published Recommendations for Preventing Transmission of Infections among Chronic Hemodialysis Patients. Centers were surveyed regarding their awareness of the recommendations and about a variety of infection control practices. In general, the incidence of HBV and HCV was not substantially different for the infection control practices evaluated, including where staff obtain clean supplies for patient treatment, reuse of unused and unopened supplies, and practices for changing external transducer filters/protectors. However, in 2002, the incidence of HBV infection was higher among patients in centers where injectable medications were prepared on a medication cart or medication area located in the treatment area compared to a dedicated medication room. Also, those centers that used a disposable container versus a nondisposable container for priming the dialyzer had a significantly lower incidence of HCV.
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            Immune dysfunction in uremia.

            Among uremic patients on hemodialysis and continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis treatment infectious complications leading to a high incidence of morbidity and mortality are a well documented problem. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs) are the main cells of the unspecific defence system during bacterial infections. There is a number of partly interdependent factors responsible for the diminished PMNL functions (chemotaxis, phagocytosis, intracellular killing by proteolytic enzymes and toxic oxygen radicals) found in uremia: iron overload, elevated levels of intracellular calcium and hemodialysis treatment per se has been shown to be involved in altered PMNL functions. Uremic toxins are circulating plasma factors accumulating in the serum of uremic patients. They are thought to play a crucial role in inhibiting the unspecific immune defence. A number of uremic toxins has already been purified and characterized. In our laboratory, a granulocyte inhibiting protein (GIP) with homology to immunoglobulin light chains has been isolated. We could show that free immunoglobulin light chains per se are able to interfere with essential PMNL functions. A GIP with homology to beta 2-microglobulin was also isolated from dialysis patients. Angiogenin was purified from uremic patients as a PMNL degranulation inhibiting protein and complement factor D was shown to adversely affect PMNL functions. A modified form of ubiquitin isolated from peritoneal dialysis patients interferes with PMNL chemotaxis. Furthermore, p-cresol was identified as a uremic solute that impairs the respiratory burst activity of PMNL. There is also increased clinical evidence for profound defects in the specific immune defence in uremia, such as the high susceptibility to viral infections in uremic patients, the deficient responses of their T lymphocytes, and the significantly depressed specific antibody responses.
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              Dialyzer membrane type and reuse practice influence polymorphonuclear leukocyte function in hemodialysis patients.

              Polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMNL) production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been linked to hemodialysis (HD) associated morbidity. The effect of dialyzer membrane type and reuse on PMNL function has not been clearly defined. The present report is a cross-sectional study undertaken in a cohort of patients undergoing regular HD, at enrollment into the Hemodialysis (HEMO) Study, to study the association between patient and dialysis-related factors and PMNL function. PMNL function was assessed by measuring PMA- and N-formyl methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP) -induced respiratory burst, and phagocytic activity toward Staphylococcus aureus. PMNL from patients dialyzed with polysulphone (PS) or cuprophane (CU) membranes showed higher PMA-induced respiratory burst activity compared with those exposed to substituted cellulose (cellulose acetate, cellulose triacetate, CA/CT) membranes, regardless of dialyzer reuse. The use of bleach as a cleansing agent during reuse was associated with higher PMA-induced PMNL superoxide production, as was the use of renalin when compared to aldehydes. In a subgroup of patients using PS dialyzers, reuse itself was associated with higher fMLP-induced superoxide production. The type of bleach-germicide combination during reuse showed that use of renalin as a germicide was also associated with higher PMNL phagocytosis index. The number of years on HD correlated inversely with PMA-induced PMNL superoxide response. Weaker PMNL response to fMLP was associated with greater comorbidity and poor functional status as quantified by Index of Coexisting Diseases (ICED) and Karnofsky scores, respectively. Our results indicate that dialyzer membrane type and the reuse process influence the oxidative response of PMNL among HD patients. The implications of these observations on clinical morbidity need to be further evaluated in prospective studies.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Journal
                eins
                Einstein (São Paulo)
                Einstein (São Paulo)
                Instituto Israelita de Ensino e Pesquisa Albert Einstein (São Paulo, SP, Brazil )
                1679-4508
                2317-6385
                March 2011
                : 9
                : 1
                : 70-74
                Affiliations
                [2] São Paulo orgnameUniversidade Federal de São Paulo Brazil
                [3] São Paulo orgnameUniversidade Federal de São Paulo Brazil
                [1] São Paulo orgnameUniversidade Federal de São Paulo Brazil
                Article
                S1679-45082011000100070
                10.1590/s1679-45082011gs1945
                f87a4b13-2882-4c5e-82f3-a72e0d5334f0

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

                History
                : 08 February 2011
                : 13 December 2010
                Page count
                Figures: 0, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 20, Pages: 5
                Product

                SciELO Brazil

                Categories
                Health Economics and Management

                Renal dialysis/instrumentation,Renal dialysis/methods,Peracetic acid,Spectrophotometry/methods,Peroxides,Diálise renal/instrumentação,Diálise renal/métodos,Ácido peracético,Espectrofotometria/métodos,Peróxidos

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