Atherosclerotic vessel disease is one of the major disease burdens of modern times,
arising from a predominantly sedentary lifestyle coupled with an overabundance of
highly processed foods. Despite growing understanding of the mechanisms leading to
atherosclerosis, its prevalence continues to grow because of lack of effective preventive
treatment options.
Throughout most of human history, the main causes of death were infection and starvation;
atheromatous vessel occlusion was not a major concern when the average lifespan was
35–40 years. From an evolutionary view, the ability to ward off and survive infections
and to adapt metabolic processes during times of famine provided a survival advantage.
A hyperactive inflammatory response and a moderate insulin resistance, however, become
maladaptive with the transition to a sedentary lifestyle, a constant oversupply of
carbohydrate-rich, refined foods, and medical support to survive even severe infections
[1], [2]. The unifying factor that connects immunity, metabolism, physical activity
and atherosclerosis is inflammation, which appears to determine every stage of the
disease process. Proof for the causal role of inflammation in clinical atherosclerosis
was provided by the CANTOS trial (Canakinumab Anti-Inflammatory Thrombosis Outcome
Study) [3], which showed that targeting interleukin-1β (IL-1β), a central mediator
of immunity, effectively reduces cardiovascular events. Intriguingly, cells of the
arterial wall not only respond to IL-1β, but can also produce it, mimicking a key
feature of immune cells [4], [5]. This may create focal hot-spots of sustained inflammation
that are largely disconnected from the initial pathogenic or traumatic trigger, and
which may play a role in atherosclerosis development. Timely resolution of inflammation
generally limits collateral damage to host tissues and prevents early pro-atherosclerotic
changes, but the modern diet and low level of physical activity favor the shift towards
sustained inflammation and inadequate resolution. In this sense, the landmark Global
Burden of Disease Study 2017 [6] highlighted modern malnutrition as an important preventable
risk factor for non-communicable diseases including atherosclerosis in adults in 195
countries.
Poor lifestyle patterns, whether by choice or circumstance, therefore determine atherosclerosis
risk. Yet we have known for decades that atherosclerotic alterations develop early
in development, with vascular intimal thickening evident in vessels of children, and
established fatty streaks documented in young adulthood [7], [8], [9]. A recent study
from Brazil, albeit with relatively low numbers, provides compelling evidence that
the foundation for atherosclerosis is established early in life, and to a large extent
independently of self-determined lifestyle factors [10]. The authors identified coronary
intimal thickening in one-third of infants, nearly three quarters of children and
in all studied adolescents. At least in children and adolescents, the majority showed
pro-atherogenic alterations in at least 2 affected arteries, independently of sex
or cause of death. Assuming these children and adolescents were largely free of the
traditional atherosclerotic risk factors of obesity, type 2 diabetes, hypertension,
hyperlipidemia and smoking, what could be the culprit spark that first inflames the
artery? One candidate is infection history. An acute infection (mainly viral) has
been linked with a more than two-fold increase in pro-atherogenic alterations in children
autopsied at age 0–15 [11], while in adults, a cumulative infection burden correlates
with accelerated atherosclerosis progression [12]. Pathogens invading vascular cells
could trigger local injury processes that promote lesion development and growth, while
a systemic cytokine response provides an indirect catalyst for atherogenesis and progression
[13]. Intracellular pathogens moreover evade host defense mechanisms, potentially
affecting atherosclerosis evolution for a long time after apparent clearance. However,
sero-epidemiological evidence for a causal association between infective pathogens
and atherosclerosis remains incosistent, perhaps because the observed associations
are biased by confounding factors. This may explain why antibiotic therapies and vaccinations
have failed to lower cardiovascular risk.
Although infection history alone does not determine atherosclerosis risk, it may provide
an atherogenesis-prone foundation susceptible to other factors that drive the disease.
A narrative review now published in this journal [14] puts forward the plausible concept
that certain types of infection in early life - with improper resolution of inflammation
– prime for the pro-atherosclerotic impact of metabolic stress in later life. The
authors report on the individual and combined impact of nutrition and infection history
during development on atherosclerosis in adulthood, scouring the literature from 1950
to the present day. They identified 13 studies in which documented childhood infections
could be linked with early signs of atherosclerosis, specifically vascular endothelial
thickening, and manifestation of coronary artery disease in adult life. Notably, 12
of these studies were performed in typical western countries, and one in urban Indonesia
where the study population had a higher BMI than usual for the rest of the country,
indicating an adaptation of this subpopulation to western nutritional habits. The
authors moreover highlighted 3 studies in patients with a documented history of infections,
that showed a higher presence of cardiovascular disease in those who were also overweight
or obese, compared to those with a body mass index <25 kg/m2. The main insights from
this review are that (i) both overeating and childhood infections are associated with
atherosclerotic vessel disease in adulthood, although infections do not appear to
act independently to cause atherosclerosis, (ii) populations with high infection rate
and low calorie hunter-gatherer type diets show a very low prevalence of atherosclerosis,
and (iii) a combination of both infections during development and later western-style
dietary habits impacts markedly on atherosclerosis.
Although providing interesting insights, this comprehensive overview does not definitely
validate the hypothesis that childhood infection primes for the pro-atherogenic influence
of metabolic stress in later life. Most studies were either associative or retrospective,
and longitudinal tracking of atherosclerosis onset, manifestation and evolution is
lacking. A further confounder is that a greater exposure to non-fatal microbes in
infancy and early childhood actually lowers the risk of systemic inflammation in later
life [15], [16], something which our rigorously antiseptic habits rarely allow for
anymore. Thus, the umbrella term ‘infection,’ not differentiating between type and
extent of the pathogenic challenge, also hampers the interpretation of the relationship
between infection and atherosclerosis.
Nevertheless, the available evidence supports the idea that acute infections may provide
a pro-inflammatory foundation for the development of atherogenesis, with poor lifestyle
and nutritional habits acting as accelerants (Fig. 1). This consideration may become
important in the aftermath of the current pandemic, with long-COVID increasingly recognized
to encompass a sustained adverse impact on vascular inflammation [17], [18], [19].
Fig. 1
Simplified scheme how childhood infections may create an inflammatory foundation for
the pro-atherogenic influences of malnutrition and lifestyle factors. Early atherosclerotic
changes develop in infancy and childhood, with established lesions documented in adolescence
and progressing age-dependently in adulthood. Pathogen challenge during development
activates both arms of the immune systems, triggering acute inflammation to clear
the invading pathogen; a constellation of resolving mediators directs timely resolution
of inflammation and supports healing and repair of injured tissues. Failure of this
pathway leads to sustained inflammation that promotes atheroma progression. A healthy
diet and active lifestyle in adulthood will support resolving mechanisms and counteract
chronic inflammatory pathways. Conversely, poor nutrition, low physical activity and
unhealthy lifestyle choices will in adulthood impair resolution and promote a chronic
inflammatory state, directly and through secondary actions related to comorbidities
and stress factors.
Sources of funding
The authors research is supported by grants from National Institutes of Health (R01HL136389,
R01HL131517 and R01HL089598), the DFG (Do 769/4-1), and the European Union (large-scale
integrative project MEASTRIA, No. 965286 to D.D.).
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which
may be considered as potential competing interests: A.F. has no conflict of interest.
D.D. in member of the Scientific Advisory Boards of Omeicos Therapeutics GmbH and
Acesion Pharma and obtained honoraria for educational lectures from Novartis, Boston
Scientific and Bristol Meyrs Squibb.