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      Co-spread of metal and antibiotic resistance within ST3-IncHI2 plasmids from E. coli isolates of food-producing animals

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          Abstract

          Concerns have been raised in recent years regarding co-selection for antibiotic resistance among bacteria exposed to heavy metals, particularly copper and zinc, used as growth promoters for some livestock species. In this study, 25 IncHI2 plasmids harboring oqxAB (20/25) /bla CTX-M (18/25) were found with sizes ranging from ∼260 to ∼350 kb and 22 belonged to the ST3-IncHI2 group. In addition to bla CTX-M and oqxAB, pcoA- E (5/25) and silE- P (5/25), as well as aac( 6′) -Ib-cr (18/25), floR (16/25), rmtB (6/25), qnrS1(3/25) and fosA3 (2/25), were also identified on these IncHI2 plasmids. The plasmids carried pco and sil contributed to increasing in the MICs of CuSO 4 and AgNO 3. The genetic context surrounding the two operons was well conserved except some variations within the pco operon. The ~32 kb region containing the two operons identified in the IncHI2 plasmids was also found in chromosomes of different Enterobacteriaceae species. Further, phylogenetic analysis of this structure showed that Tn7-like transposon might play an important role in cross-genus transfer of the sil and pco operons among Enterobacteriaceae. In conclusion, co-existence of the pco and sil operons, and oqxAB/bla CTX-M as well as other antibiotic resistance genes on IncHI2 plasmids may promote the development of multidrug-resistant bacteria.

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          A general method for detecting and sizing large plasmids.

          We have devised a method for detecting and estimating the sizes of large bacterial plasmids in the presence of genomic DNA by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Bacteria harboring plasmids were embedded in agarose and lysed using a rapid protocol. Plugs were incubated with S1 nuclease and subjected to PFGE in agarose gels. S1 nuclease converted supercoiled plasmids into full-length linear molecules. Large plasmids migrated as discrete bands that were readily observed after ethidium staining. Their sizes were reliably estimated by comparison with linear DNA markers. Without S1 digestion, supercoiled plasmids migrated at rates that were not a simple function of their molecular weights, making size determinations problematic. S1-PFGE detected megaplasmids up to 609 kilobases (kb) in six genera of bacteria (Agrobacterium, Escherichia, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, and Staphylococcus). The procedure gave size values consistent with previous estimates for characterized megaplasmids. Eight new plasmids between 102 and 316 kb were discovered in Klebsiella and Staphylococcus. S1-PFGE avoids the difficulties of plasmid isolation, eliminates the preparation of probes, and does not require knowledge of restriction enzyme cleavage sites. It detects multiple large plasmids up to the limits of PFGE and can be used to screen for megaplasmids in many strains simultaneously.
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            Antimicrobial silver: uses, toxicity and potential for resistance.

            This review gives a comprehensive overview of the widespread use and toxicity of silver compounds in many biological applications. Moreover, the bacterial silver resistance mechanisms and their spread in the environment are discussed. This study shows that it is important to understand in detail how silver and silver nanoparticles exert their toxicity and to understand how bacteria acquire silver resistance. Silver ions have shown to possess strong antimicrobial properties but cause no immediate and serious risk for human health, which led to an extensive use of silver-based products in many applications. However, the risk of silver nanoparticles is not yet clarified and their widespread use could increase silver release in the environment, which can have negative impacts on ecosystems. Moreover, it is shown that silver resistance determinants are widely spread among environmental and clinically relevant bacteria. These resistance determinants are often located on mobile genetic elements, facilitating their spread. Therefore, detailed knowledge of the silver toxicity and resistance mechanisms can improve its applications and lead to a better understanding of the impact on human health and ecosystems.
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              Molecular basis for resistance to silver cations in Salmonella.

              Here we report the genetic and proposed molecular basis for silver resistance in pathogenic microorganisms. The silver resistance determinant from a hospital burn ward Salmonella plasmid contains nine open reading frames, arranged in three measured and divergently transcribed RNAs. The resistance determinant encodes a periplasmic silver-specific binding protein (SilE) plus apparently two parallel efflux pumps: one, a P-type ATPase (SilP); the other, a membrane potential-dependent three-polypeptide cation/proton antiporter (SilCBA). The sil determinant is governed by a two-component membrane sensor and transcriptional responder comprising silS and silR, which are co-transcribed. The availability of the sil silver-resistance determinant will be the basis for mechanistic molecular and biochemical studies as well as molecular epidemiology of silver resistance in clinical settings in which silver is used as a biocide.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Sci Rep
                Sci Rep
                Scientific Reports
                Nature Publishing Group
                2045-2322
                04 May 2016
                2016
                : 6
                : 25312
                Affiliations
                [1 ]National Risk Assessment Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance of Animal Original Bacteria, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou, China
                [2 ]Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou 510642, P. R. China
                [3 ]Jiangsu Co-Innovation Centre for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou, Jiangsu, the People’s Republic of China
                Author notes
                Article
                srep25312
                10.1038/srep25312
                4855149
                27143648
                fa508a06-c8fd-4f5c-b604-68cbbd15ce00
                Copyright © 2016, Macmillan Publishers Limited

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

                History
                : 15 December 2015
                : 12 April 2016
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