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      Occurrence and Characteristics of Mobile Colistin Resistance ( mcr) Gene-Containing Isolates from the Environment: A Review

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          Abstract

          The emergence and spread of mobile colistin (COL) resistance ( mcr) genes jeopardize the efficacy of COL, a last resort antibiotic for treating deadly infections. COL has been used in livestock for decades globally. Bacteria have mobilized mcr genes ( mcr-1 to mcr-9). Mcr-gene-containing bacteria (MGCB) have disseminated by horizontal/lateral transfer into diverse ecosystems, including aquatic, soil, botanical, wildlife, animal environment, and public places. The mcr-1, mcr-2, mcr-3, mcr-5, mcr-7, and mcr-8 have been detected in isolates from and/or directly in environmental samples. These genes are harboured by Escherichia coli, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Proteus, Salmonella, Citrobacter, Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Kluyvera, Aeromonas, Providencia, and Raulotella isolates. Different conjugative and non-conjugative plasmids form the backbones for mcr in these isolates, but mcr have also been integrated into the chromosome of some strains. Insertion sequences (IS) (especially IS Apl1) located upstream or downstream of mcr, class 1–3 integrons, and transposons are other drivers of mcr in the environment. Genes encoding multi-/extensive-drug resistance and virulence are often co-located with mcr on plasmids in environmental isolates. Transmission of mcr to/among environmental strains is clonally unrestricted. Contact with the mcr-containing reservoirs, consumption of contaminated animal-/plant-based foods or water, international animal-/plant-based food trades and travel, are routes for transmission of MGCB.

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          Mobile Genetic Elements Associated with Antimicrobial Resistance

          SUMMARY Strains of bacteria resistant to antibiotics, particularly those that are multiresistant, are an increasing major health care problem around the world. It is now abundantly clear that both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria are able to meet the evolutionary challenge of combating antimicrobial chemotherapy, often by acquiring preexisting resistance determinants from the bacterial gene pool. This is achieved through the concerted activities of mobile genetic elements able to move within or between DNA molecules, which include insertion sequences, transposons, and gene cassettes/integrons, and those that are able to transfer between bacterial cells, such as plasmids and integrative conjugative elements. Together these elements play a central role in facilitating horizontal genetic exchange and therefore promote the acquisition and spread of resistance genes. This review aims to outline the characteristics of the major types of mobile genetic elements involved in acquisition and spread of antibiotic resistance in both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, focusing on the so-called ESKAPEE group of organisms ( Enterococcus faecium , Staphylococcus aureus , Klebsiella pneumoniae , Acinetobacter baumannii , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Enterobacter spp., and Escherichia coli ), which have become the most problematic hospital pathogens.
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            Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance in water environments.

            Antibiotic-resistant organisms enter into water environments from human and animal sources. These bacteria are able to spread their genes into water-indigenous microbes, which also contain resistance genes. On the contrary, many antibiotics from industrial origin circulate in water environments, potentially altering microbial ecosystems. Risk assessment protocols for antibiotics and resistant bacteria in water, based on better systems for antibiotics detection and antibiotic-resistance microbial source tracking, are starting to be discussed. Methods to reduce resistant bacterial load in wastewaters, and the amount of antimicrobial agents, in most cases originated in hospitals and farms, include optimization of disinfection procedures and management of wastewater and manure. A policy for preventing mixing human-originated and animal-originated bacteria with environmental organisms seems advisable.
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              Resistance plasmid families in Enterobacteriaceae.

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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Int J Environ Res Public Health
                Int J Environ Res Public Health
                ijerph
                International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
                MDPI
                1661-7827
                1660-4601
                06 February 2020
                February 2020
                : 17
                : 3
                : 1028
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Microbiology Unit, Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 400001, Nigeria; madubuike.anyanwu@ 123456unn.edu.ng
                [2 ]Department of Livestock and Pasture Science, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa
                [3 ]Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 400001, Nigeria; obichukwu.nwobi@ 123456unn.edu.ng
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: ijaja@ 123456ufh.ac.za ; Tel.: +27-78-549-2098; Fax: +27-86-770-6869
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2754-103X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9310-6511
                Article
                ijerph-17-01028
                10.3390/ijerph17031028
                7036836
                32041167
                fa88e70a-eb8a-4f42-8eb6-b5bb76ded7e2
                © 2020 by the authors.

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 24 August 2019
                : 20 January 2020
                Categories
                Review

                Public health
                plasmid-mediated,mcr gene,environment,antimicrobial resistance
                Public health
                plasmid-mediated, mcr gene, environment, antimicrobial resistance

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