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      Gender bias in therapeutic effort: from research to health care Translated title: Sesgos de género en el esfuerzo terapéutico: de la investigación a la atención sanitaria

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          Abstract

          Abstract There are relevant dimensions from a gender perspective related to therapeutic effort. To illustrate and discuss possible gender bias related to medicines, through the consumption analysis in women, the prescription of biological drugs according to sex, the potential gender inequality in adverse drug reactions, and research with clinical trials, as well as the decisions of international institutions in the marketing of medicinal products. There is greater tendency to prescribe pain relievers, regardless of pain, and drugs for low intensity depressive symptoms in women than in men. The opposite occurs in the prescription of statins and adequate doses, and with the greater probability of prescribing anti-tumor necrosis factor in men than in women with ankylosing spondylitis, despite a similar disease burden. Adverse drug reactions are observed more frequently in women than in men, where determinants such as body weight are having little influence on the dosage. It is currently scarcely considered in the prescription that women have differences in the activity of cytochrome CYPP450 enzymes, which can affect the liver's metabolism rate. There are even immunological, genetic and epigenetic effects (due to heredity and uneven gene dosing located in the X and Y chromosomes) that can influence these differences by sex. Finally, through cases of hormonal therapy clinical trials, a drug for women's inhibited sexual desire and a contraceptive for men, gender bias and stereotypes are shown to influence a potential generation of inequalities, especially in adverse drug reactions to the detriment of women. In conclusion, health professionals frequently attribute physical symptoms to women's emotionality, influencing their greater prescription of symptomatic drugs. Whether the same reason influences the lower prescription of therapeutic drugs in women than in men should be analyzed. There are biological determinants to consider due to their influence on a greater pharmacological toxicity in women. Clinical trials should improve according to the gender recommendations by the Food and Drugs Administration.

          Translated abstract

          Resumen Existen dimensiones relevantes desde una perspectiva de género relacionadas con el esfuerzo terapéutico. Se pretende ilustrar y traer a debate posibles sesgos de género relacionados con los medicamentos, mediante el análisis del consumo en las mujeres, la prescripción de fármacos biológicos según sexo, la potencial desigualdad de género en las reacciones adversas a los medicamentos y la investigación con ensayos clínicos, así como las decisiones de las instituciones internacionales en la comercialización de medicamentos. Se observa una mayor tendencia a prescribir analgésicos, con independencia del dolor, y fármacos para síntomas depresivos de baja intensidad en mujeres que en hombres. Lo contrario sucede en la prescripción de estatinas y dosis adecuadas, y con la mayor probabilidad de prescripción de antifactor de necrosis tumoral en hombres que en mujeres con espondilitis anquilosante, pese a la similar carga de la enfermedad. Las reacciones adversas a los medicamentos se observan con más frecuencia en mujeres que en hombres, donde determinantes como el peso corporal están influyendo poco en la dosificación. En la actualidad se considera escasamente en la prescripción que las mujeres presentan diferencias en la actividad de las enzimas del citocromo CYPP450, que puede afectar a la velocidad del metabolismo hepático. Incluso hay efectos inmunológicos, genéticos y epigenéticos (por la herencia y la dosificación desigual de los genes ubicados en los cromosomas X e Y) que pueden influir en estas diferencias por sexo. Por último, mediante los casos de ensayos clínicos de la terapia hormonal, un fármaco para el deseo sexual inhibido de las mujeres y un anticonceptivo para hombres, se muestran sesgos y estereotipos de género que influyen en una potencial generación de desigualdades, especialmente en las reacciones adversas a los medicamentos en perjuicio de las mujeres. Concluyendo, los profesionales sanitarios atribuyen con frecuencia a la emocionalidad de las mujeres lo que son síntomas físicos, influyendo en la mayor prescripción de fármacos sintomáticos en ellas. Debe analizarse si la misma razón influye en la menor prescripción de fármacos terapéuticos en mujeres que en hombres. Existen determinantes biológicos a considerar por su influencia en una mayor toxicidad farmacológica en las mujeres. Los ensayos clínicos deben mejorar atendiendo a las recomendaciones de género de la Food and Drug Administration.

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          “Brave Men” and “Emotional Women”: A Theory-Guided Literature Review on Gender Bias in Health Care and Gendered Norms towards Patients with Chronic Pain

          Background Despite the large body of research on sex differences in pain, there is a lack of knowledge about the influence of gender in the patient-provider encounter. The purpose of this study was to review literature on gendered norms about men and women with pain and gender bias in the treatment of pain. The second aim was to analyze the results guided by the theoretical concepts of hegemonic masculinity and andronormativity. Methods A literature search of databases was conducted. A total of 77 articles met the inclusion criteria. The included articles were analyzed qualitatively, with an integrative approach. Results The included studies demonstrated a variety of gendered norms about men's and women's experience and expression of pain, their identity, lifestyle, and coping style. Gender bias in pain treatment was identified, as part of the patient-provider encounter and the professional's treatment decisions. It was discussed how gendered norms are consolidated by hegemonic masculinity and andronormativity. Conclusions Awareness about gendered norms is important, both in research and clinical practice, in order to counteract gender bias in health care and to support health-care professionals in providing more equitable care that is more capable to meet the need of all patients, men and women.
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            Delayed Care and Mortality Among Women and Men With Myocardial Infarction

            Background Women with ST‐segment–elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) have higher mortality rates than men. We investigated whether sex‐related differences in timely access to care among STEMI patients may be a factor associated with excess risk of early mortality in women. Methods and Results We identified 6022 STEMI patients who had information on time of symptom onset to time of hospital presentation at 41 hospitals participating in the ISACS‐TC (International Survey of Acute Coronary Syndromes in Transitional Countries) registry (NCT01218776) from October 2010 through April 2016. Patients were stratified into time‐delay cohorts. We estimated the 30‐day risk of all‐cause mortality in each cohort. Despite similar delays in seeking care, the overall time from symptom onset to hospital presentation was longer for women than men (median: 270 minutes [range: 130–776] versus 240 minutes [range: 120–600]). After adjustment for baseline variables, female sex was independently associated with greater risk of 30‐day mortality (odds ratio: 1.58; 95% confidence interval, 1.27–1.97). Sex differences in mortality following STEMI were no longer observed for patients having delays from symptom onset to hospital presentation of ≤1 hour (odds ratio: 0.77; 95% confidence interval, 0.29–2.02). Conclusions Sex difference in mortality following STEMI persists and appears to be driven by prehospital delays in hospital presentation. Women appear to be more vulnerable to prolonged untreated ischemia. Clinical Trial Registration URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/. Unique identifier: NCT01218776.
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              Genetic and epigenetic factors underlying sex differences in the regulation of gene expression in the brain.

              There are inherent biological differences between males and females that contribute to sex differences in brain function and to many sex-specific illnesses and disorders. Traditionally, it has been thought that such differences are due largely to hormonal regulation; however, there are also genetic and epigenetic effects caused by the inheritance and unequal dosage of genes located on the X and Y chromosomes. Here we discuss the evidence in favor of a genetic and epigenetic basis for sexually dimorphic behavior, as a consequence of underlying differences in the regulation of genes that drive brain function. A better understanding of sex-specific molecular processes in the brain will provide further insight for the development of novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by sex differences. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                fh
                Farmacia Hospitalaria
                Farm Hosp.
                Grupo Aula Médica (Toledo, Toledo, Spain )
                1130-6343
                2171-8695
                June 2020
                : 44
                : 3
                : 109-113
                Affiliations
                [1] San Vicente del Raspeig Alicante orgnameUniversidad de Alicante orgdiv1Public Health Research Group Spain
                [3] Elche Valencia orgnameUniversidad Miguel Hernández de Elche orgdiv1Department of Public Health, History of Science and Gynecology Spain
                [4] Alicante orgnameHospital General de Alicante orgdiv1Clinical Pharmacology Unit and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de ISABIAL Spain
                [2] Madrid orgnameInstituto de Salud Carlos III orgdiv1Consorcio de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP) Spain
                Article
                S1130-63432020000300007 S1130-6343(20)04400300007
                10.7399/fh.11394
                32452310
                fe9f0453-3a1a-488a-a4a6-f2faad3a5fed

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

                History
                : 24 December 2019
                : 30 December 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 0, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 53, Pages: 5
                Product

                SciELO Spain

                Categories
                Special Articles

                Clinical trial,Adverse effects,Statins,Gender bias,Infliximab,Gender,Hormonal therapy,Oral hormonal contraceptives,Disfunción sexual,Sexual dysfunction,Género,Anticonceptivos hormonales orales,Sesgos de género,Ensayo clínico,Terapia hormonal,Efectos adversos,Estatinas

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