WOOD SPECIE(S) SUITABLE FOR HANDLING MEAT BASED ON PROTEIN CONTENT IN BAUCHI METROPOLIS

Farm product such as meat is highly perishable to a varying degree. The perishability is further aggravated by prevalent poor handling and storage practices, insanitary habits, and ignorance. However, in fabrication of storage and handling equipment for perishable farm products, the focus lays on the prevention of contaminations during the short period of contact, hence the need to determine the physical properties, phytochemical constituent of some selected wood species and proximate composition of meat and the mean effect of the wood on nutritional value of the meat. To achieve these, the experiment was laid out in a 3 × 3 × 2 factorial experiment involving three species of wood material (Kaya senegalensis (W 1 ) ,


Introduction
Farm produce of both plant and animals' origin are perishable to varying degrees.Meat is naturally highly perishable.This high perishability is further aggravated by prevalent poor handling and storage practices, filthy environment, insanitary habits, illiteracy, and general poverty.Meat is much more susceptible to mechanical injury because of its shape and structure, soft texture and high moisture content, and the need for more careful handling.Injuries lead to increased physiological contaminants activities enhancing perishability (Zak, 2010).Wood as materials of construction is usually selected based on strength, elasticity, hardness, toughness, sensitivity to wear, corrosion and fatigue resistance, ease of fabrication, availability, and cost price.However, in the construction of food processing equipment and services, the focus lays on the Isoberlinia doka (W2) and Mansonia altissima (W3), three duration (3 hours (T1), 6 hours (T2) and 9 hours (T3) and wooden board (coated and uncoated) as (C1×C2), arrange in randomized complete design (RCD) in three replications making a total of 3×3×3=27×2= 54 treatments.The physical properties of the wood species were determined.The meat was minced before and after handling on different species of wood for three (3) hours interval of the 3 replications and proximate analysis was conducted for determination of moisture, protein, fat, and ash content.All data generated was analysed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and mean effects of meat handled on wood were determined.The results of the physical properties of wood species revealed that, the moisture content of the wood species ranges from (8-10%) and porosity index value (1.28 -1.79), which is suitable for handling meat in terms of the physical properties.The most valuable component of meat from the nutrition and processing point of view is protein.Protein contents values define the quality of raw beef meat.The result of proximate composition of meat handled on wooden board made of Isoberlinia doka retained the right nutritional quality based on protein content at (20.41%) which falls within USDA standard (USDA, 2010) for acceptable protein content of Meat and was significantly different at (P<0.05).Monsonia altissima, when coated resulted in beef meat retaining higher protein content across all stages of exposure time which falls above required acceptable standard.It was noted that Monsonia altissima posed health risk during handling due to its potential to cause Asthma, Pneumonia and sensitization through its dust, hence proper selection of wooden material needs to be developed to ensure nutrient are preserved in food.
prevention of food contamination during the short period of contact between the product and equipment surfaces (Frank & Eric, 2006).In Nigeria, local materials common for handling agricultural products include wooden crates, cardboard boxes, paper crates, woven palm basket, plastic crates, wooden table, nylon sacks, jute sacks and polythene bags (Idah et al., 2007).Wood is an organic material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers (which are strong in tension) embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression.Wood is produced as secondary xylem in the stems of trees (and other woody plants).In a living tree it performs a support function enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up for them.Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fibre.Wood has been used extensively for furniture, such as chairs and beds.Also, for tool handles and cutlery, such as chopsticks, toothpicks, and other utensils, like the wooden spoon.However, people have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a construction material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks, and paper (Tan, 2011).Wood naturally contains a microbial population according to its moisture content, decay status and duration of storage after cutting the tree (Munir et al., 2019).However today, the usage of wood in the food industry remains under debate.
Wood is an issue because of hygiene and mechanical strength problems; risk of splinters, porosity of wood (promotes the absorption of blood, fat, and moisture), difficulties to keep it smooth and free of cracks, difficult to keep it cleans and hygiene due to the lack of cleaning and sanitation method etc.Moreover, strong oxidizing acids and diluted alkalis may attack wood (Frank & Eric, 2006), hence the need to critically analyse some species of wood in handling meat by proximate and phytochemical analysis to determine the wood suitable for handling meat based on the meat protein content.

Materials and Methods
The following materials were selected and used for the Research study.

Experimental Design
Wood specie(s) suitable for handling meat based on the protein content was conducted to determine the physical properties and phytochemical composition of wood sample and proximate composition of meat using three different species of wood (Kaya-senegalensis (W1), Mansonia altissima (W2) and Isoberlinia doka (W3)), three exposure time (3 hrs (t1), 6 hrs (t2), 9 hrs (t3) and two wood conditions (Coated (C1) and Uncoated (C2) making a total of 3 x 3 x 2 = 18 treatments.Each test was conducted in three replications which gave a total of 54 experimental samples.This was then fitted into a completely randomized design (CRD).Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the effect of each of the factors and their combinations on moisture content, protein content, fat content and ash content of the meat.Tukey's method (α < 0.05) was deployed to determine significant differences between sample means using Statistical Analysis Software (SAS 9.2) 2010.

Experimental Procedures
The wood samples obtained from timber market in Muda Lawal Bauchi metropolis, Bauchi state, was carefully selected from sawn healthy timbers identified and their local names obtained from timber dealers, confirmed by botanist in Ministry of Housing and Environmental Sanitation under Forestry Department as shown in Table 1 below: In the study area, most of the wood species used by local Butchers are made of Kaya Senegalensis, Mansonia altissma and Isoberlinia doka, because of the strength and physical properties of the species.However, some of the wood species in the study area are also toxic to humans when used.

Sample Preparation
The cold meat sample was minced at a weight of 500gms with the use of food grinder with 3 mm plate opening.The grounded sample was kept in an airtight container.The sample was weighed again to avoid moisture loss.The oven was preheated.Beakers and filter papers were dried by heating them in a microwave oven for one minute, the heating time necessary to completely dry the samples in the microwave oven was determined.It was then ready for analysis.(Hautezinge & Henz, 2007).

Moisture content determination
Empty beaker plus filter paper was then weighed.About 10 grams of the prepared sample as described in sample preparation was weighed in the beaker.The meat sample was spread into a thin layer around the lower wall of the container with spatula.
The filter paper was place over the top of the beaker and folded to close and the beaker plus filter paper was weighed.Then the sample was place in the preheated oven as seen on Plate I.
Plate I: Oven It was ensured that the samples were spaced at equal distances around the turntable.The sample was cooled in a desiccator.The beaker plus dried samples plus filter paper was then weigh, drying was repeated until constant weight was obtained in equation 1 below.

Determination of ash content
The defatted sample was placed in a constant weight porcelain crucible with cover.The crucible was then placed in a muffle furnace as shown in Plate III, and at a temperature of 600°C.

Plate III: Muffle furnace
The sample was ignited for two hours.After ignition the crucible was placed in the oven to bring down the temperature for about 30 minutes, then cooled in a desiccator for another 30 minutes.The sample was then weighed to constant weight.This is illustrated in the calculation of Equation 3 below: % Ash =

Sample Preparation for Wood Species
The three (3) species of wood was well grounded to fine powder with the use of angle polisher.The powdered sample was kept in an airtight polyurethane bags in cool dry cabinet until required.

Methods of determination of moisture content of the wood
The following gives the details process of determination of moisture content of wood and porosity index value.

Moisture Content
The moisture content was determined by weighing 2g grams of each wood powder into a preheated, cooled and weighed crucible as seen in Plate IV.The wood sample in each crucible was dried in an oven for 24 hours at regulated temperature of 85 o C to a constant weight.Each crucible and its content were cooled in desiccator before weighing.The moisture content was determined as the percentage moisture, given as in Equation 5. Plate V: Dry starch wood sample soaked in oil

Phytochemical Constituents of the Wood Sample
The following constituent of various wood samples were determined using standard methods as described by Ejikeme (2014).

Test for tannins
0.30 g of each wood powder was weighed and boiled in a 30 cm 3 of water in a water bath for 10 mins and then filtered using Whatman filter paper No 42 (125 mm).Three drops of 0.1% ferric chloride were added to 5cm 3 of the filtrates and observed for brownish green or a blue-black coloration as illustrated in Plate VI.
Plate VI: Output of phytochemical test 2.5.2Test for saponin 0.30 g of wood powder was added to 30cm 3 of distilled water, boiled for 10 minutes in water bath and filter using Whatman filter paper No 42 (125mm).The filtrate (10cm 3 ) was mixed with 5cm 3 of distilled water and shaken vigorously for a stable persistent froth.The frothing was mixed with three drops of olive oil and shaken vigorously, then observed for the formation of emulsion.

Test for steroid
Some 20cm 3 of ethanol was added to 0.30g each wood powder weighed into a beaker; the mixture was allowed to stand for 2 hours.Acetic anhydride (2cm 3 ) was added to 5cm3 of ethanolic extract of each sample following with addition of 2cm 3 of concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid.
The colour changed from violet to blue or green in some samples indicating the presence of steroids.

Test for terpenoid
Distilled water (30cm 3 ) was added to 0.30g of each wood powder weighed into a beaker and the mixture was allowed to stand for 2 hours.Measured 5cm 3 of each extract was mixed in 2cm 3 of chloroform and 3cm 3 of concentrated Tetraoxosulphate (VI) Acid was added to form a layer.A reddish-brown colouration at the interphase was formed, shows positive result for the presence of terpenoids.

Test for flavonoid
Distilled water (30cm 3 ) was added to 0.30g of the wood powder weighed into a beaker, the mixture was allowed to stand for 2 hours and filter using Whatman No 42 (125mm).Some 5cm 3 of 1.0M dilute ammonia solution was added to 10cm 3 of the aqueous filtrate of each wood extract followed by the addition of 5cm 3 of concentrated Tetraoxosulphate (VI) Acid.Observation of yellow colouration which disappeared on standing indicated the presence of flavonoids.

Test for alkaloid
Two grams of each wood powder was placed in a 250cm 3 conical flask and 20cm 3 of 5% tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid (H2SO4) in 50% ethanol was added.The mixture was boiled for 2 minute and filtered through Whatman filter paper No 42 (125mm).The filterate was placed ina separating funnel and made alkaline with 5cm 3 of 28% ammonia solution (NH3).The solution was extracted with equal volume of chloroform (5.0cm 3 ).The chloroform solution was extracted with two 5cm 3 portion of 1.0M dilute tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid, the final acid extract was then used to carry out the test;-To 2cm 3 of acid extract was added 0.5cm 3 of Dragennorff`s reagent (Bismuth potassium iodide solution) and observed for orange colour precipitation indicating the presence of alkaloid.

Test for glycoside
Some 20cm 3 of water was added to 2.00g of each wood powder.The mixture was heated in a water bath for 5 minutes and filtered through Gem filter paper (12.5cm 3 ).The filtrate was used for the following test:i) 5cm 3 of the filtrate was added 0.2cm 3 of Fehling's solutions A and B until it turned alkaline (tested with litmus paper) and heated on a water bath for a brick-red colouration.ii) Using 15cm 3 of 1.0M sulphuric acid instead of water, the above test was repeated, and the amount of precipitate formed compared with that of (a) above.The high precipitate formed indicates the presence of glycoside, if low it indicates the absence of glycoside.

Statistical Analysis
Analysis was conducted using statistical analysis system (SAS 9.2) 2010 software.ANOVA and the mean comparison of three independent variables was determined using method of least Tukey's method.The means of performance trends and empirical relationships for wood and meat were generated on the MS-Excel and Statistical analysis conducted.

Physical Composition of Wood Species Studied Factor
This section presents the experimental data obtained while determining the wood specie suitable for handling Beef meat based on the protein content.The results explained the physical properties, phytochemical content associated with the selected wood species for handling meat and the effect on the nutritional value of meat.

Phytochemical Composition of Wood Species Studied
Phytochemicals are secondary metabolites produce by plants in which when consumed as food they are recognized as key components for preventing human diseases and maintaining good health (Li, 2012).
Table 3 shows the phytochemical content of wood sample (Kaya senegalensis, Monsonia altissima and Isoberlinia doka).The result reveals that the three (3) species of the wood highly have concentration of (Tannins and Saponins).Tannins are important water-soluble plant secondary metabolites which have powerful biological activities and nutritional effects (Bakari et. al, 2017).Tannins act as protein regulator which interact and stabilizes protein (Mora et al, 2022) while Saponins are supplements known to exhibit microbial activities (Ojekale et. al, 2007).Kaya senegalensis and Isoberlinia doka have high concentration of (Alkaloid and Flavonoid).There was presence of steroid in Kaya senegalensis and Mansonia altissima while absent in Isoberlinia doka.Alkaloid have been reported to possess various pharmacological activities including antihypertensive effects, anti-malaria, and anticancer activities (Achi et al., 2017).The presence of terpenoid support it use in treatment and management of cancer, ulcer, and malaria (Mora et al., 2022).The presence of glycoside supports its use as flavouring agent and in management of cancer (Ojekale et al., 2008).Steroids are phyto-constituents that have found therapeutic application as arrow poisons or cardiac drags (Achi et al., 2017).

Proximate composition of Beef meat studied
Meat is composed of water, fat, protein, minerals, and small portions of carbohydrate.From nutrient point of view, Beef meat is mostly comprised of protein and contains no carbohydrate.This makes Beef a very efficient source of protein that is bioavailable and ready for the body to metabolized (USDA, 2010).Table 4 shows the chemical composition of beef meat sample before handling on wood.The result shows moisture content of (75%) which is normal, as beef meat naturally contains (75%) moisture and the moisture was higher when compared to standard result of USDA, 2009) on table 2 which has moisture content of (73.3%).The result on Table 5 shows beef meat contains (20.91% protein, 1.74 fat and 3.37 Ash) compared to USDA Table 4 containing (21.4% protein, 5.0% fat and 1.1% Ash).The difference was due to factors affecting meat composition such as meat cut used, age of animal from which the beef was obtained, breed, feeding management, time of the year and type of muscles (Chowdhury, 2021).Moreover, Meat from leaner animals on average contains slightly higher percentage of water (Hautzinge & Heinz, 2007).Means with the same superscript along the column are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.Means with the same superscript along the column are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.

Effect of Wood condition on protein content
Table 9 shows the mean comparison for the effects of wood condition (which is coated and uncoated) on moisture content.The result reveals that the mean value of the wood condition for coated at 21.47% and uncoated at 20.71 which falls within USDA Standard (USDA, 2010) for acceptable protein content of meat.It is also significantly different.Means with the same superscript along the column are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.

Effect of Time and Wood Species on Protein Content
Table 10 shows the mean comparison for the effects of interaction between wood species and time on protein content.

Effect of Wood Species, Time, and Wood Condition on Protein Content
The table 11 shows the mean comparison for the effects of time, wood species and wood condition on protein content.The mean comparison is indicating that means with different letters are significantly different.The table revealed that the mean value of protein content at time 3, 6 and 9 hours for all the wood species and wood condition are significantly different except coated Mansonia altissima (W2 (C1)).It also revealed that the mean values of protein content for all the wood species (W1, W2 and W3) and wood condition (coated and uncoated) C1 and C2 increases from time 3 to 6 hours and increases at 9 hours' time except coated Mahogany (W1 (C1)) which decreases from (19.73 to 13.74%) from time 3 to 9 hours and coated Mansonia aitissima (W2(C1)) which increases from (25.75 to 26.62%) from 3 to 6 hours and decreases to (25.41%) at 9 hours' time.From the result obtained, uncoated Isoberlinia doka (W3 (C2)) had the maximum protein content (33.69%) at 3 hours' time.This means that the protein content of meat handled on wood depends on the wood species, the condition of the wood and time.Means with the same superscript along the column are not significantly different at 5% level of probability.

Conclusion
The study revealed the following as major findings: i.The physical properties and phytochemical constituent of the selected wood species (Kaya Senegacensis, Mansonia altissima and Isobeilini doka) indicates their suitability for manufacture of wooden equipment since their moisture range (8-10%) falls within the moisture range (6-12%) at which wood strength is at its greatest.The result revealed that the of beaker plus filter paper = A Weight of beaker plus filter paper + sample = B (before drying) in grams Weight of beaker plus filter paper + sample = C (after drying) in grams fat determination Using samples dried from the microwave oven, the weight of dried sample determined from the oven was then put inside filter paper and fold close.The dried sample was then Place inside the Soxhlet extraction tube connected to the Soxhlet flask.Then enough ether was poured into the extraction tube as shown in Plate II.Plate II: Soxhlet Apparatus for Fat determination It was extracted for 10 hours, at 3-4 drops per second.After extraction, the defatted sample from the extraction tube was taken out and the sample was air dried for traces of ether.It was then dried further in an oven as at 100°C and cool in a desiccator as shown in Plate I.The defatted sample was cooled to constant weight (Hautezinge &Heinz, 2007).The procedures were repeated for the meat placed on wooden board (coated and uncoated) for 3

(
Wt of crucible with cover + ash) -wt of crucible with coverOriginal wt of the sameple x100…(3)(Chowdhury, 2021) %Moisture =     −            × 100 … (5) (Ejikeme et al., 2014) Plate IV: Moisture Determination of Different Species of Wood2.4.1.2Determination of Porosity IndexOne gram of cold-water starch was prepared with 5cm 3 of water.The starch which serves as an adhesive was mixed with 1.03 g of the wood powder.The mixture (slurry mixture) was moulded into ring shape allowed to dry on exposure to air for 15 hours.The moulded dry wood sampled was weighed as shown in Plate V. Using an electronic weighing balance and dry weight was determined.The dry wood sample was soaked in 75 cm 3 paraffin oil for 24 hours.The soaked dry wood sample was weighed, and the weight recorded.Mathematically, porosity index was determined thus as shown in Equation6: Porosity index =    ℎ         ℎ   … (6)(Ejikeme et al., 2014)

Table 4 :
Proximate Composition of Beef Meat adopted from US department of Agriculture,

Table 5 :
Proximate Composition of Beef Meat at Temperature 33 0 C and Relative Humidity

Table 6 :
ANOVA of Effect of Time, Wood Species and Wood Condition on Protein Content

Table 7 :
Effect of Time on the Protein

Table 8 :
Mean Effect of Wood Species on

Table 9 :
Mean This means the average protein content depended on wood species and variation of time.The table reveals that the meat placed on wood species w2 at time 6 hour (19.24%) and w3 at 6 to 9 hours' time with (20.58 to 20.08) retained the protein content that falls within (USDA, 2010) acceptable set standard for protein content.

Table 10 :
Mean Effect of Time and Wood Species on Protein Content

Table 11 :
Mean Effect of Wood Species, Time, and Wood Condition on Protein Content