Nature Management: Balancing Wildlife & Human Use

Nature reserves are areas that are protected and managed in order to preserve and maintain the natural environment and promote the survival and diversity of wildlife. Effective management of a nature reserve requires a clear plan that takes into account the characteristics and needs of the area, as well as the external and internal influences that may impact it. This includes gathering information about the plants, animals, and other features of the area and considering the impact of human activities and other external factors. It is also important to carefully consider the ownership and long-term management of the reserve, and involve local authorities and other stakeholders in the management process. Additionally, the reserve may also be used for research and recreation, as long as these activities do not negatively impact the natural environment.


Introduction
In former times one could say there was a certain balance between nature and Man's living pattern. He used to hunt a bit, and when this became difficult he went a few miles further. If that area was already occupied, there was a little war and everything started again. More people, however, require much more careful management, a much more careful adjustment to supply and demand.
Nature is a rather slow, complex process which needs to take its own time. Nature cannot be hurried; it is three weeks for a chicken and nine months for a human being. There are no (economic) processes imaginable which can shorten these times.
Nature is no longer the natural environment of our society; now-adays it is no more than a claim in the process of country planning, a claim to be fought for. Large-scale air and water pollution where the limits to dump waste are being exceeded and are not in balance with the natural ways of acquiring certain amounts of waste, is the natural environment of human society.
Instead of working hard against these processes, we started to create nature reserves. These are places where nature is more important than human development, places where rare animals and plants could survive, places where people could enjoy nature that once was. I think it is the right answer but it is not enough. Through our nature reserveswe JOURNAL OF ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY, YOLo 1. 1988 NATUREMANAGEMENT: BALANCING WILDLIFE& HUMANUSE 49 must fight for more responsible use of our entire environment. It is unacceptable that trees can no longer grow in large parts of Europe. We have already lost the lichens and nobody worried; the sandstone buildings are affected and everyone was surprised; the copper hooks of a slate roof are immediately affected; the lakes in northern Europe are suffering from the rain instead of enjoying it; now the trees can no longer stand the rain. And what about us and-our carefullyprotected nature reserves?
As a nature reserve we protect a particular area from certain developments, from human activities etc. It always seems to be defensive though it should be a much more positive approach. It should be a contribution towards a better environment with real living green areas supporting a variety of wildlife and a balanced system which contributes towards the functions of nature. However, its surrounding area is sometimes completely different. A wetland might be surrounded by desert-like areas, a forest by cornfields, a reedbed by cities and villages. The area itself might be protected, but its survival is never guaranteed. We have to control the positiveand negative influences of the unnatural surroundings of our reserve; it has to be a part of the management.
There are many different ways of protecting an area. In general, it will depend on the political system of the country concerned whether an area has to be bought or can 'simply' be declared a reserve.Sometimes, with a well-enforced country-planning purchase is the only solutionpurchase by an organization which will take care of the long-term protection and its management. It willensure a clear starting point and a certain basis for future development of the area. There should be no discussion about the ownership of the protected area; where this is in doubt it is better to delay a long-term management programme.

Influences: External & Internal
There are many reasons why it is necessary to manage an area. A forester manages his forest because he wants to find the best balance between his efforts to plant trees & to harvest them and in the meantime maintain an optimum forest eco-system.Some organizations start their management on a completely wrong footing. After an area has been declared a reserve, they start building hides, information centres, plant trees, build roads etc. The best thing is to do nothing and just try to get to know your area. Some guards to observe the behaviour and preferences of the animals are more than enough. Later, we can make a real plan on the basis of such information.
There are two types of influences that are to be taken into account.

External Influences
As mentioned before, there is a possibility of profound environmental influences from the outside. To plan a nature reserve close to an air-polluting factory is not wise. Preventing-the building of such a plant near your reserve is commendable. It is also wise to plant trees etc. around such a plant, but that is not a nature reserve, and it will never become one. It is a green 'aura' around such an area, extremely important but not a reserve. It has completely different functions. The bird reserve in the centre of the harbour of Tokyo is not an easy area to manage. Completely surrounded by pollution, it is restricted in its possibilities, but also an excellent educational project, a victory for conservation and a living warning system, a sensitive nose with living real birds as warning signals. The more indirect external environmental influences are even more difficult to consider. Pesticides found at south pole, acid rain in Scandinavia from factories over 1000 kms. away; such processes cannot be controlled in a single nature reserve. We can only use the reserves to show the disastrous influence of these processes and fight against the irresponsible use of pesticides, the easy-going industrial processes etc.
In general, small nature reserveswill suffergreatly on account oftheir surroundings, but again there are conceivably several reasons why it is justifiable to establish such reserves. Only their possibilities are restricted.
The nature reserve will sometimes have a certain influence on its surroundings. Sometimes it has more to do with education and general acceptance of the idea of reservesthan with anything else. But again it is the scale of your reserve that is really important. A small area does not disturb and cannot contribute, but large areas will have an impact. Certain animals and plants will not stay in the reserveand will penetrate the surrounding area. If it is a reservefor elephants it is not acceptable for large groups to destroy the agriculture outside the reserve each night. The reserve is probably too small.
It is much more difficult to measure beneficial effects. Owls wHI eat mice in the surrounding fields, and there may be some beneficial influence on the (micro) climate. Although hedges are seldom nature reserves,one seesthe difference between agricultural areaswith hedges and those without. Partridges, pheasants, birds of prey, songbirdsthese define the richness of an agricultural area intersected by hedges: and they are all absent from the areas with mono-cultures. Quality is never easyto measure;lossof quality is easyto seeand difficult to repair.

Internal Influences
One of the most important general questions will be the type of vegetation and the degreeof succession.If the vegetation hasreachedits climax (e.g. forest, sea-shore, dunes, lakes) the management process will be completely different from a situation in which the vegetation will pass through several different stages (marsh, shallow water, moors grazed by sheep, meadows etc.).
I do not suggest that the first types are stable and only the second dynamic. They are all dynamic botanical processesand one has only to judge what to do. A forest will be a climax situation botanically speaking, but fire, storm, agewill alwayschangethe areaand all different ages of forest, including open areas will be present in a natural situation. However, in situations where the vegetation itself is still undergoing chage, sometimes causedby human activities, management is different. A lot of nature management is related to slowing down the natural ecological processesin favour of a certain type of systemwhich would be rarer under natural circumstances. WetIands in particular suffer from changes in their surroundings and a lot of the management efforts are necessaryto remove these influences.
In forests we are generally concerned about human occupation and forest reserves are not that easy to manage. It is difficult to predict whether a man-made forest will ever grow into a natural forest again, with the samevariety of trees as there was before human interference. If such processeswere to take hundreds of years, it would be preferable to set aside areaswhere such processescould evolve. Nature management is not something for ourselves but for generations to come.
In small areasone must decide upon the preference in the choice of the ecological processes.After making such a choice one should not change it. You will ruin your reserveby choosing another system with each new manager. Once the choice has been made to allow one ecological process to develop undisturbed, this must be the policy, at least for the next 100 years unless significant influences from the outside prove the decision unjustified after all.
Large areasare perhaps easierto manageafter a decision is made, but the decision is extremely important for the future of the area. People, especially political people, who have no knowledge of ecological processesshould never be involved in the management practice. They should be involved in the establishment of the reserve but not in the management.
Special Preference towards some Animals.
As the possibilities for nature are limited in general, it will be difficult to develop complete, natural eco-systems in all reserves. There will be special reserves for breedings cranes, for tigers, may be for dragonflies. In a huge marsh a crane will always find a square metre needed for its nest.
But this chance will be reduced to practcically zero if the marsh is very small and if the natural succession is to continue. If the marsh is especially established as a reserve for cranes, one has to manage the water, the vegetation etc. Cranes will show their appreciation by breeding in the well-managed site. But in a small area one should not bring too many conflicting interests together.
The greatest satisfaction derived from a well-executed m ment plan will always be the spontaneous establish ment of n species or the enlargement of an existing colony. However, this is a human approach and not always the best ecological one. .More' is the human assessment of success; ecologically just a balanced minimum is much more attractive. Management is not only a lot of one species, but a balanced system which can survive in itself.
However, bias towards certain species is sometimes very necessary.
Some animals evolved into such crazy specialists that they can never survive in our society. One of the challenges for nature conservation is to find solutions for these specialists. The challenge for the politician is to create opportunities for all these different ecological requirements; for the manager to bring them to fruition.

Botanical Preferences
An area with a special rare plant or a special type of vegetation may be especially managed for this purpose. Many of the north European heaths ing these areas open, with their own botanical and zoological community is one of the aims of nature conservation in those countries. Although we know the technical process very well of how to manage those areas, acid rain and general air pollution destroy these processes and it is doubtful whether we can maintain the heather community as such in these countries. Preference for certain plants is sometimes easily combined with the wish to harvest and to slow down the natural succession. Reed (Phragmites communis) is a good example. Reed is an earlypioneer in the water land process. It already grows in water 2-3 metres deep and can grow for many years under rather dry conditions. If it is possible to control the growth of reeds, harvest it, burn it, etc. the marsh can keep its original character for centuries. If this harvesting can be combined with a financial approach, it will be a successful management tool. However,if commercialization of the reed-harvest becomes an aim as such, the activity cannot be accepted in a nature reserve.

Recreation, Interpretation, Education
Never start a discussion with people as follows: the nature reserve is paid for with our taxes; the nature reserve is for us and we want to do what we want. After this people think that the nature reserve is a sort of cheap television, where one can watch tigers eating deer; see mating animals everywhere; make thrilling observations etc. Forget it. In general, nature reserves are rather dull areas, sometimes with a certain beauty, scenery. Nature has its own rights and we should not let nature be over-run by people who do not know what to look for.
If one accepts the idea that people have no right to disturb nature inside or outside reserves and parks with their recreational activities, one can ask what possibilities there are of showing people something of the life inside the reserves.The possibilities are absolutely endless, even within the limits of responsible use of the area. To open an area for different kinds of recreational opportunities is extremely important for the acceptance of the area as a reserve and for nature conservation in general.
As a general rule, one could say that recreational use should be along existing paths with enough undisturbed areas for wildlife. Knowledge of the area and of the different processes are necessary before one can start to show visitors some of the birdlife. It is dangerous to start special attractions for the public too soon. It is much better for the reserve to establish itself over a period of many years and then one learns where the attractions are and how to manage them more to the public benefit. New roads etc. should be avoided, and sometimes the existing ones must be reconsidered.
There are very few examples of well-organised national parks in which large numbers of people can really enjoy themselves. In general, it is where one can find geological formations, caves, water falls etc. Natural beauty seems to be more easily managed than living nature. It is easier to show people a sunset than the flight of a night jar which happens at the sametime.
In general, cars should not be admitted to reservesand parks. Althoughit is knownthat severalanimalsare lessafraidof carsthan of people on foot, the speed of cars is not compatible with the aims and possibilities of the area. Transport by silent boats through certain areas is ideal. Some very large parks can only be visited by cars, but this comment is given only as a general rule. In my opinion, all special provisions such as restaurants, over-night facilities etc. should be arranged near but not inside the park.
Guided tours, interpretative routes, information centre, school programmes: all these are essential for the area, essential for long-term nature conservation and the best use of the amenities of the area. I am not negative towards recreational aspects. But if wrongly managed they ruin your area or conjure up forces that cannot be controlled.
As mentioned before, a nature reserve is not a buffer between a polluting factory and a city. A nature reserve needs a buffer for its own purposes. Country planning should be mindful of the reserves as longterm well-managed processes are very difficult to replace or relocate.

Financial Aspects
A fee creates expectations. A fee just to sweat will not be tolerated. But people will happily pay a fee to see something in the wild. A wellequipped information centre, guided tours, information staff: people are willing to pay for quality.
I would like to give one example of a wrong financial approach in a national park. This park (60,000 ha) has a small staff of 10 people and is subsidised by the national government. Each year over a million visitors come to the park and enjoy nature and the particular atmosphere. The ministry responsi ble for national parks has to pay money each year to the staff and all kinds of supplies for an information centre. The money from the visitors do not go to the national park or the appropriate ministry, but to the ministry of tourism which organises, in the name of national park, visits by tourists. In my opinion a completely wrong approach is this. There can only be one 'hand' that manages a park or a reserve.This hand does not only deal with plants and animals and some enthusiastic bird-lovers, but this 'hand' manages all the above-mentioned processes and tries to find the financial balance.
Many small reserves with limited aims and recreational possibilities, will cost money. There is no alternative. This is inherent in the decision to establish such areas. One should not fear financial problems. With nature, one has something unique if it is well-managed.Aftersome tim, you can offer the public something they like to see. With more and more spare time people are ravenous for new ways to spend it.

Basic Information (mainly abiotic)
A map of the area has to be developed; preferablya map on which it is possible to note several activities in management and recreation. The boundaries ofthe area, operative or future, haveto be defined on the map as well as in the field. In relation with the management process it might be necessaryto spend a lot of time on boundaries, as many conflicts may arise in the future from border problems. Future plants which might have an influence on the reserveshould be taken into account. It is also important that the area itself and a buffer around it are accepted as such as soon as possible. It helps to involve local authorities in the processso they learn what it is all about.
A description of the area, historical as well, has to be provided.If there are any buildings it is wise to make a decision as soon as possible. Sometimes the area has important historical buildings. They have to be maintained, but they can also prove attractive for future recreation. Vulnerable ecological processes should not be developed close to such points. Other buildings should better be demolished as soon as possible before other interests arise. It is better to have buildings outside tpan inside. Even a warden does not have to live inside the area, as after <t-/bw. years he needs electricity, a school bus, tap-water etc. A geological and geomorphological map and description are useful. Awater-table should be very useful in wet areas surrounded by agricultural areas.

The Ecological Inventory (Biotic Information)
For the management of an area it is extremely useful to have a good inventory of biological processes and of data related to plants and animals; preferably for several years. At least some key information is necessary; e.g. mammals: are there any rare species; large herds; where do they stay; are they diurnal or nocturnal etc.; birds: are there any colonies; areas with large birds of prey; concentration of birds during winter or on migration; any rare species with special needs etc. other animals: additional information about reptiles, amphibians, fish is most welcome; Plants, vegetation, succession: a vegetation map is essential for good management; a sub-division into different types of forest, different ages, different management in the past, already givesmuch information; more detailed vegetation maps of certain parts of the area are needed.
During the process of gathering this information one gets ideas about management. Therefore, those who are responsible for management should be involved in this part of the process too. It is not necessary to know all birds, all plants etc. but a certain knowledge ofthe processes, including some groups of plants and animals is essential.
If the area is just a new lake in bare surroundings, the inventory wiII be very short, and much more attention has to be devoted to planning new activities. But if the area is a thousands-of-years old complex of marshes, meadows & forest, the inventory is important and one should not start doing all kinds of things too soon.
--It is also important to describe the existing use of certain areas.What about agriculture, hunting, cattle etc.? First describe and try to find out if an influence can be notified on vegetation or other animals. If it is clear that over-grazing by cattle takes place, this has to be resolved before the establishment of the reserve. There are situations in which cattle contribute greatly towards the biological diversity of the reserve. But one should also ask oneself why there is not a possibility, in the long-term, of this role being assumed by original or locally extinct grazers.
Another aspect that has to be mentioned here deals with research: in general, biological research, but one can also think about agricultural, sociological and economic research. Small reserves are not very attractive for fundamental research but it is very interesting to find out how they contribute towards the evaluation of the surroundings in which one lives.
It is attractive to know a lot of all the processes in your area. But each new piece of knowlege need not lead to new revolutionary management processes.

Management Plan
First a long-term plan has to be developed.In this plan an over-viewis drafted for the first 10-50years.Allaspects such as borders, environmental aspects, zoological and botanical information, recreation, people in the surrounding area etc. are described. Sometimes it is wise to present such a plan to the local community or to havea discussion with the local authorities; partly for their information, partly also to involve them in the process and to take care that the country-planning authority in the region is informed about activities in the area.
The short-term management plan however, is an internal document. For the area as a whole and foreach clearly identifiable part ofthe area, it is essential tc mention all the necessary activities, which time of the year, etc.
A management plan is an enumeration of activities. But in this cont€xt 'doing nothing' is also an activity. The well-planned nonactivity is just as important as a certain activity. If one works from the general over-viewtowards the details, one will not make many mistakes. To write down all kinds of work in your area is far easier than the long-term plan in which processes are described and combined. A short-term management plan without the support of a long-term plan will nearly always become a failure.

Finances & Personnel
There are hardly any situations in which a plan can be developed and staff and money are immediately availableexactly as one would wish. A good management plan should be 'sold' to those who took the decision for the reserve.
Management activities will cost money. Sometimes it is cheaper to have one's own personnel to carrythem out; sometimes it is cheaper and better to involve local contractors. Each area and each country has its own approach. This is also the place where one has to decide whether local people are to carry out certain management activities; e.g. cutting reed, grazing, guided tours, wood-cutting, hunting, fishing etc. If it is possible to reach favourable agreements with the local people, it will help the aims of the reserve,the acceptance of the enclosed areas and the financial situation of the reserve.

Enluation Reports
It is extremely important that all kinds of activities and observations NATURE MANAGEMENT: BALANCING WILDLIFE & HUMAN USE 57 are written down in regular reports or special forms. Using the same maps and the same compartment numbers as shown in the management plan makes life easier. The information can immediately be used for a new plan.
Reports relating to the management of the area should not only contain biological observations but should also give an overviewof the management activities themselves. For large areas an annual report will be veryhelpful, but forsmall areas simple data-gathering will be enough.
In general, it will be impossible to collect data on all biological phenomena which are of interest in the area. It is possible to make a selection of 10-20 species; animals and plants. Do not take only the rare ones, but also one or two common species, as it is veryinteresting to see how such a population changes in relation to management activities. Cranes, certain birds of prey, colony breeders, woodpeckers; they are in general key species for management reports. Results should contribute towards the management plan itself, but basic principles should not be changed too quickly.