Building tribal communities in the collaborative economy: an innovation framework

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Volume 34, Issue 2

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Building tribal communities in the collaborative economy: an innovation framework

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Author(s): Stuart J. Barnes ^a , Jan Mattsson ^b

Publication date (Print): 1 June 2016

Journal: Prometheus

Publisher: Pluto Journals

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Abstract

In recent years, there has been a groundswell of initiatives aimed at providing platforms to share resources among people. Collaborative consumption provides a model for a ‘sharing economy’ where the dominant logic of consumers is resource access rather than ownership. This study examines the nature and development of a variety of collaborative consumption businesses; in particular, we explore how start-up entrepreneurs see the problems of creating a tribal community among customers and users. Interviews were carried out with founders and co-founders of collaborative consumption ventures during 2014-15. The results suggest that these organisations face many common issues. We develop and apply a framework to understand some of these. We find that collaborative consumption entrepreneurs strive to build a tribal community by matching, in an innovative way, supply and demand. This is typically done by co-creating shared commonality, developing scalable electronic platforms, and building trust into platforms using social media to develop proxy social capital. Consequently, by using existing ecosystems of social media, tribal communities can be formed and scaled much more quickly than via traditional marketing approaches.

Content

Author and article information

Contributors

Stuart J. Barnes

Journal

Journal ID (doi): 10.2307/j50022063

Journal ID (jcode): prometheus

Title: Prometheus

Publisher: Pluto Journals

ISSN: 0810-9028

ISSN: 1470-1030

Publication date (Print): 1 June 2016

Volume: 34

Issue: 2 ( doiID: 10.1080/prometheus.34.issue-2 )

Pages: 95-113

Affiliations

[a ]Department of Management, King's College London, London, UK;

[b ]Department of Social Sciences and Business, Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark

Article

Publisher ID: 08109028.2017.1279875

DOI: 10.1080/08109028.2017.1279875

SO-VID: 79184945-bc2a-476b-912a-35610976e3f0

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All content is freely available without charge to users or their institutions. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission of the publisher or the author. Articles published in the journal are distributed under a http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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lang eng

ScienceOpen disciplines: Computer science,Arts,Social & Behavioral Sciences,Law,History,Economics

References

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Arnold, D. (1970) ‘Dimensional sampling: an approach of studying a small number of cases’, American Sociologist, 5, 2, pp.147-50.
Arnould, E. and Thompson, C. (2005) ‘Consumer culture theory: twenty years of research’, Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 4, pp.868-82.
Aune, T. and Gressetvold, E. (2011) ‘Supplier involvement in innovation processes: a taxonomy’, International Journal of Innovation Management, 15, 1, pp.141-43.
Badrinarayanan, V., Sierra, J. and Taute, H. (2014) ‘Determinants and outcomes of online brand tribalism: exploring communities of massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs)‘, Psychology and Marketing, 31, 10, pp.853-70.
Baines, T., Lightfoot, H., Steve, E., Neely, A., Greenough, R., Peppard, J., Roy, R., Shehab, E., Braganza, A., Tiwari, A., et al. (2007) ‘State-of-the-art in product service-systems’, Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 221, pp.1543-52.
Baldwin, C., Hiernerth, C. and von Hippel, E. (2006) ‘How user innovations become commercial products: a theoretical investigation and case study’, Research Policy, 35, pp.1291-313.
Bardhi, F. and Eckhardt, G. (2012) ‘Access-based consumption: the case of car-sharing’, Journal of Consumer Research, 39, pp.881-98.
Barnes, S. and Mattsson, J. (2016) ‘Understanding current and future issues in collaborative consumption: a four-stage Delphi study’, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 104, 3, pp.200-11.
Belk, R. (2014) ‘You are what you can access: sharing and collaborative consumption online’, Journal of Business Research, 67, pp.1595-600.
Benkler, Y. (2004) ‘Sharing nicely: on shareable goods and the emergence of sharing as a modality of economic production’, Yale Law Journal, 114, pp.273-358.
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Canniford, R. (2011) ‘How to manage consumer tribes’, Journal of Strategic Marketing, 19, 7, pp.591-606.
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Cova, B. and Pace, S. (2006) ‘Brand community of convenience products: new forms of customer empowerment - the case “my Nutella the community”‘, European Journal of Marketing, 40, 9/10, pp.1087-105.
Cova, B. and White, T. (2010) ‘Counter-brand and alter-brand communities: the impact of Web 2.0 on tribal marketing approaches’, Journal of Marketing Management, 26, 3-4, pp.256-70.
Crouch, M. and McKenzie, H. (2006) ‘The logic of small samples in interview-based qualitative research’, Social Science Information, 45, 4, pp.483-89.
Dosi, G. (1988) ‘The nature of the innovative process’ in Dosi, G., Freeman, C., Nelson, R., Silverberg, G. and Soete, L. (eds.) Technical Change and Economic Theory, Pinter Press, London, pp.221-38.
Dubé, L., Bourhis, A. and Jacob, R. (2005) ‘The impact of structuring characteristics on the launching of virtual communities of practice’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, 18, 2, pp.145-66.
Felson, M. and Spaeth, J. (1978) ‘Community structure and collaborative consumption: a routine activity approach’, American Behavioral Scientist, 21, 4, pp.614-24.
Fischer, M. (1999) ‘The innovation process and network activities of manufacturing firms’ in Fischer, M., Surez-Villa, L. and Steiner, M. (eds.) Innovation, Networks and Localities, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp.11-27.
Fournier, S. and Lee, L. (2009) ‘Getting brand communities right’, Harvard Business Review, 87, 4, pp.105-11.
Fremstad, A. (2014) Gains from Sharing: Sticky Norms, Endogenous Preferences, and the Economics of Shareable Goods, Economics Working Paper 168, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
Gallouj, F. and Weinstein, O. (1997) ‘Innovation in services’, Research Policy, 27, 4-5, pp.537-56.
Gomez, B., Gutierrez, A. and Cillan, J. (2005) ‘The role of loyalty programs in behavioural and affective loyalty’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, 23, 7, pp.387-96.
Goulding, C., Shankar, A. and Canniford, R. (2013) ‘Learning to be tribal: facilitating the formation of consumer tribes’, European Journal of Marketing, 47, 5/6, pp.813-32.
Goulding, C., Shankar, A. and Elliott, R. (2002) ‘Working weeks, rave weekends: identity fragmentation and the emergence of new communities’, Consumption, Markets and Culture, 5, pp.261-84.
Hamari, J., Sjöklint, M. and Ukkonen, A. (2015) The Sharing Economy: Why People Participate in Collaborative Consumption, available from http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2271971 [accessed August 2016].
Hamilton, K. and Hewer, P. (2010) ‘Tribal mattering spaces: social networking sites, celebrity affiliations, and tribal innovations’, Journal of Marketing Management, 26, 3-4, pp.271-89.
Heiskanen, E. and Repo, P. (2007) ‘User involvement and entrepreneurial action’, Human Technology, 3, 2, pp.167-87.
Hennig-Thurau, T., Gwinner, K., Walsh, G. and Gremler, D. (2004) ‘Electronic word-of-mouth via consumer-opinion platforms: what motivates consumers to articulate themselves on the internet?‘, Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18, 1, pp.38-52.
Holzweber, M., Mattsson, J. and Standing, C. (2015) ‘Entrepreneurial business development through building tribes’, Journal of Strategic Marketing, 23, 7, pp.563-78.
John, N. (2013) Sharing, Collaborative Consumption and Web 2.0, Media@LSE Working Paper 26, London School of Economics, London.
Klioutch, I. and Leker, J. (2011) ‘Supplier involvement in customer new product development: new insights from the supplier's perspective’, International Journal of Innovation Management, 15, 1, pp.231-48.
Kozinets, R., de Valck, K., Wojnicki, A. and Wilner, S. (2010) ‘Networked narratives: understanding word-of-mouth marketing in online communities’, Journal of Marketing, 74, pp.71-89.
Krippendorff, K. (2012) Content Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology, Sage, Thousand Oaks CA.
Kumar, V., Bhaskaran, V., Mirchandani, R. and Shah, M. (2013) ‘Creating a measurable social media marketing strategy: increasing the value and ROI of intangibles and tangibles for hokey pokey’, Marketing Science, 32, 2, pp.194-212.
Latitude, (2010) The New Sharing Economy, Latitude, Beverly MA.
Leismann, K., Schmitt, M., Rohn, H. and Baedeker, C. (2013) ‘Collaborative consumption: towards a resource-saving consumption culture’, Resources, 2, 3, pp.184-203.
Loch, C. and Terwiesch, C. (1998) ‘Communication and uncertainty in concurrent engineering’, Management Science, 44, 8, pp.1032-48.
Martin, C. and Upham, P. (2015) ‘Grassroots social innovation and the mobilisation of values in collaborative consumption: a conceptual model’, Journal of Cleaner Production, 134, pp.204-13.
Miles, M. and Huberman, A. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis, Sage, Thousand Oaks CA.
Mitchell, C. and Imrie, B. (2011) ‘Consumer tribes: membership, consumption and building loyalty’, Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 23, 1, pp.39-56.
Möhlmann, M. (2015) ‘Collaborative consumption: determinants of satisfaction and the likelihood of using a sharing economy option again’, Journal of Consumer Behavior, 14, 3, pp.193-207.
Morrison, P., Roberts, J. and Midgley, D. (2004) ‘The nature of lead users and measurement of leading edge status’, Research Policy, 33, pp.351-62.
Muniz, A. and O'Guinn, T. (2001) ‘Brand community’, Journal of Consumer Research, 27, pp.412-32.
Piscicelli, L., Cooper, T. and Fisher, T. (2015) ‘The role of values in collaborative consumption: insights from a product-service system for lending and borrowing in the UK’, Journal of Cleaner Production, 97, pp.21-29.
Putnam, R. (2000) Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, Simon and Schuster, New York.
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Rapp, A., Beitelspacher, L., Grewal, D. and Hughes, D. (2013) ‘Understanding social media effects across seller, retailer and consumer interactions’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 41, 5, pp.547-66.
Sarasvathy, S. (2001) ‘Causation and effectuation: towards a theoretical shift from economic inevitability to entrepreneurial contingency’, Academy of Management Review, 26, 2, pp.243-63.
Schouten, J. and McAlexander, J. (1995) ‘Subcultures of consumption: an ethnography of the new bikers’, Journal of Consumer Research, 22, pp.43-61.
Schwartz, S., Cieciuch, J., Vecchione, M., Davidov, E., Fischer, R., Beierlein, C., Ramos, A., Verkasalo, M., Lönnqvist, J., Demirutku, K., Dirilen-Gumus, O. and Konty, M. (2012) ‘Refining the theory of basic individual values’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, pp.663-88.
Simmons, G. (2008) ‘Marketing to postmodern consumers: introducing the Internet chameleon’, European Journal of Marketing, 42, 3/4, pp.299-310.
Sørensen, F. and Mattsson, J. (2016) ‘Speeding up innovation: building network structures for parallel innovation’, International Journal of Innovation Management, 20, 2, doi:10.1142/S1363919616500249.
Sørensen, F., Sundbo, J. and Mattsson, J. (2013) ‘Organisational conditions for service encounter-based innovation’, Research Policy, 42, 8, pp.1446-56.
Tidd, J., Bessant, J. and Pavitt, K. (2001) Managing Innovation - Integrating Technological, Market and Organizational Change, John Wiley, Chichester.
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Tukker, A. (2004) “Eight types of product-service system: eight ways to sustainability?‘, Experiences from SusProNet‘, Business Strategy and the Environment, 13, pp.246-60.
von Hippel, E. (2005) Democratizing Innovation, MIT Press, Cambridge MA.
Willer, R., Flynn, F. and Zak, S. (2012) ‘Structure, identity, and solidarity: a comparative field study of generalized and direct exchange’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 57, pp.119-55.
Yin, R. (1994) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Sage, Thousand Oaks CA.
Zervas, G., Proserpio, D. and Byers, J. (2015) The Rise of the Sharing Economy: Estimating the Impact of Airbnb on the Hotel Industry, Boston University School of Management Research Paper 2013-16, available from http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2366898 [accessed August 2015].

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Adjei, M., Noble, S. and Noble, C. (2010) ‘The influence of C2C communication in online brand communities on customer purchase behaviour’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38, 5, pp.634-53.

[2] Alam, I. (2002) ‘An exploratory investigation of user involvement in new service development’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 30, 3, pp.250-61.

[3] Arnold, D. (1970) ‘Dimensional sampling: an approach of studying a small number of cases’, American Sociologist, 5, 2, pp.147-50.

[4] Arnould, E. and Thompson, C. (2005) ‘Consumer culture theory: twenty years of research’, Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 4, pp.868-82.

[5] Aune, T. and Gressetvold, E. (2011) ‘Supplier involvement in innovation processes: a taxonomy’, International Journal of Innovation Management, 15, 1, pp.141-43.

[6] Badrinarayanan, V., Sierra, J. and Taute, H. (2014) ‘Determinants and outcomes of online brand tribalism: exploring communities of massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs)‘, Psychology and Marketing, 31, 10, pp.853-70.

[7] Baines, T., Lightfoot, H., Steve, E., Neely, A., Greenough, R., Peppard, J., Roy, R., Shehab, E., Braganza, A., Tiwari, A., et al. (2007) ‘State-of-the-art in product service-systems’, Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 221, pp.1543-52.

[8] Baldwin, C., Hiernerth, C. and von Hippel, E. (2006) ‘How user innovations become commercial products: a theoretical investigation and case study’, Research Policy, 35, pp.1291-313.

[9] Bardhi, F. and Eckhardt, G. (2012) ‘Access-based consumption: the case of car-sharing’, Journal of Consumer Research, 39, pp.881-98.

[10] Barnes, S. and Mattsson, J. (2016) ‘Understanding current and future issues in collaborative consumption: a four-stage Delphi study’, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 104, 3, pp.200-11.

[11] Belk, R. (2014) ‘You are what you can access: sharing and collaborative consumption online’, Journal of Business Research, 67, pp.1595-600.

[12] Benkler, Y. (2004) ‘Sharing nicely: on shareable goods and the emergence of sharing as a modality of economic production’, Yale Law Journal, 114, pp.273-358.

[13] Benkler, Y. (2011) The Penguin and the Leviathan, Crown, New York.

[14] Botsman, R. and Rogers, R. (2011) What's Mine Is Yours: How Collaborative Consumption is Changing the Way We Live, Collins, London.

[15] Buijs, J. (2003) ‘Modelling product innovation processes, from linear logic to circular chaos’, Creativity and Innovation Management, 12, 2, pp.76-93.

[16] Canniford, R. (2011) ‘How to manage consumer tribes’, Journal of Strategic Marketing, 19, 7, pp.591-606.

[17] Celsi, R., Rose, R. and Leigh, T. (1993) ‘An exploration of high-risk leisure consumption through sky diving’, Journal of Consumer Research, 20, pp.1-38.

[18] Christensen, C. (2003) The Innovator's Solution: Creating and Sustaining Successful Growth, Harvard Business Press, Boston.

[19] Colombo, G. Dell'era, C. and Frattini, F., (2011) ‘New Product Development (NPD) service suppliers in open innovation practices: processes and organization for knowledge exchange and integration’, International Journal of Innovation Management, 15, 1, pp.165-204.

[20] Cova, B. (1997) ‘Community and consumption: towards a definition of the linking value of products or services’, European Journal of Marketing, 31, 3/4, pp.297-316.

[21] Cova, B. and Cova, V. (2002) ‘Tribal marketing: the tribalization of society and its impact on the conduct of marketing’, European Journal of Marketing, 36, 5-6, pp.595-620.

[22] Cova, B., Kozinets, R. and Shankar, A. (eds.) (2007) Consumer Tribes, Butterworth-Heinemann, Burlington MA.

[23] Cova, B. and Pace, S. (2006) ‘Brand community of convenience products: new forms of customer empowerment - the case “my Nutella the community”‘, European Journal of Marketing, 40, 9/10, pp.1087-105.

[24] Cova, B. and White, T. (2010) ‘Counter-brand and alter-brand communities: the impact of Web 2.0 on tribal marketing approaches’, Journal of Marketing Management, 26, 3-4, pp.256-70.

[25] Crouch, M. and McKenzie, H. (2006) ‘The logic of small samples in interview-based qualitative research’, Social Science Information, 45, 4, pp.483-89.

[26] Dosi, G. (1988) ‘The nature of the innovative process’ in Dosi, G., Freeman, C., Nelson, R., Silverberg, G. and Soete, L. (eds.) Technical Change and Economic Theory, Pinter Press, London, pp.221-38.

[27] Dubé, L., Bourhis, A. and Jacob, R. (2005) ‘The impact of structuring characteristics on the launching of virtual communities of practice’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, 18, 2, pp.145-66.

[28] Felson, M. and Spaeth, J. (1978) ‘Community structure and collaborative consumption: a routine activity approach’, American Behavioral Scientist, 21, 4, pp.614-24.

[29] Fischer, M. (1999) ‘The innovation process and network activities of manufacturing firms’ in Fischer, M., Surez-Villa, L. and Steiner, M. (eds.) Innovation, Networks and Localities, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp.11-27.

[30] Fournier, S. and Lee, L. (2009) ‘Getting brand communities right’, Harvard Business Review, 87, 4, pp.105-11.

[31] Fremstad, A. (2014) Gains from Sharing: Sticky Norms, Endogenous Preferences, and the Economics of Shareable Goods, Economics Working Paper 168, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

[32] Gallouj, F. and Weinstein, O. (1997) ‘Innovation in services’, Research Policy, 27, 4-5, pp.537-56.

[33] Gomez, B., Gutierrez, A. and Cillan, J. (2005) ‘The role of loyalty programs in behavioural and affective loyalty’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, 23, 7, pp.387-96.

[34] Goulding, C., Shankar, A. and Canniford, R. (2013) ‘Learning to be tribal: facilitating the formation of consumer tribes’, European Journal of Marketing, 47, 5/6, pp.813-32.

[35] Goulding, C., Shankar, A. and Elliott, R. (2002) ‘Working weeks, rave weekends: identity fragmentation and the emergence of new communities’, Consumption, Markets and Culture, 5, pp.261-84.

[36] Hamari, J., Sjöklint, M. and Ukkonen, A. (2015) The Sharing Economy: Why People Participate in Collaborative Consumption, available from http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2271971 [accessed August 2016].

[37] Hamilton, K. and Hewer, P. (2010) ‘Tribal mattering spaces: social networking sites, celebrity affiliations, and tribal innovations’, Journal of Marketing Management, 26, 3-4, pp.271-89.

[38] Heiskanen, E. and Repo, P. (2007) ‘User involvement and entrepreneurial action’, Human Technology, 3, 2, pp.167-87.

[39] Hennig-Thurau, T., Gwinner, K., Walsh, G. and Gremler, D. (2004) ‘Electronic word-of-mouth via consumer-opinion platforms: what motivates consumers to articulate themselves on the internet?‘, Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18, 1, pp.38-52.

[40] Holzweber, M., Mattsson, J. and Standing, C. (2015) ‘Entrepreneurial business development through building tribes’, Journal of Strategic Marketing, 23, 7, pp.563-78.

[41] John, N. (2013) Sharing, Collaborative Consumption and Web 2.0, Media@LSE Working Paper 26, London School of Economics, London.

[42] Klioutch, I. and Leker, J. (2011) ‘Supplier involvement in customer new product development: new insights from the supplier's perspective’, International Journal of Innovation Management, 15, 1, pp.231-48.

[43] Kozinets, R., de Valck, K., Wojnicki, A. and Wilner, S. (2010) ‘Networked narratives: understanding word-of-mouth marketing in online communities’, Journal of Marketing, 74, pp.71-89.

[44] Krippendorff, K. (2012) Content Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology, Sage, Thousand Oaks CA.

[45] Kumar, V., Bhaskaran, V., Mirchandani, R. and Shah, M. (2013) ‘Creating a measurable social media marketing strategy: increasing the value and ROI of intangibles and tangibles for hokey pokey’, Marketing Science, 32, 2, pp.194-212.

[46] Latitude, (2010) The New Sharing Economy, Latitude, Beverly MA.

[47] Leismann, K., Schmitt, M., Rohn, H. and Baedeker, C. (2013) ‘Collaborative consumption: towards a resource-saving consumption culture’, Resources, 2, 3, pp.184-203.

[48] Loch, C. and Terwiesch, C. (1998) ‘Communication and uncertainty in concurrent engineering’, Management Science, 44, 8, pp.1032-48.

[49] Martin, C. and Upham, P. (2015) ‘Grassroots social innovation and the mobilisation of values in collaborative consumption: a conceptual model’, Journal of Cleaner Production, 134, pp.204-13.

[50] Miles, M. and Huberman, A. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis, Sage, Thousand Oaks CA.

[51] Mitchell, C. and Imrie, B. (2011) ‘Consumer tribes: membership, consumption and building loyalty’, Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 23, 1, pp.39-56.

[52] Möhlmann, M. (2015) ‘Collaborative consumption: determinants of satisfaction and the likelihood of using a sharing economy option again’, Journal of Consumer Behavior, 14, 3, pp.193-207.

[53] Morrison, P., Roberts, J. and Midgley, D. (2004) ‘The nature of lead users and measurement of leading edge status’, Research Policy, 33, pp.351-62.

[54] Muniz, A. and O'Guinn, T. (2001) ‘Brand community’, Journal of Consumer Research, 27, pp.412-32.

[55] Piscicelli, L., Cooper, T. and Fisher, T. (2015) ‘The role of values in collaborative consumption: insights from a product-service system for lending and borrowing in the UK’, Journal of Cleaner Production, 97, pp.21-29.

[56] Putnam, R. (2000) Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, Simon and Schuster, New York.

[57] PwC (2013) The Sharing Economy - Sizing the Revenue Opportunity, PwC, available from http://www.pwc.co.uk/issues/megatrends/collisions/sharingeconomy/the-sharing-economy-sizing-the-revenue-opportunity.jhtml [accessed August 2015].

[58] Rapp, A., Beitelspacher, L., Grewal, D. and Hughes, D. (2013) ‘Understanding social media effects across seller, retailer and consumer interactions’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 41, 5, pp.547-66.

[59] Sarasvathy, S. (2001) ‘Causation and effectuation: towards a theoretical shift from economic inevitability to entrepreneurial contingency’, Academy of Management Review, 26, 2, pp.243-63.

[60] Schouten, J. and McAlexander, J. (1995) ‘Subcultures of consumption: an ethnography of the new bikers’, Journal of Consumer Research, 22, pp.43-61.

[61] Schwartz, S., Cieciuch, J., Vecchione, M., Davidov, E., Fischer, R., Beierlein, C., Ramos, A., Verkasalo, M., Lönnqvist, J., Demirutku, K., Dirilen-Gumus, O. and Konty, M. (2012) ‘Refining the theory of basic individual values’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, pp.663-88.

[62] Simmons, G. (2008) ‘Marketing to postmodern consumers: introducing the Internet chameleon’, European Journal of Marketing, 42, 3/4, pp.299-310.

[63] Sørensen, F. and Mattsson, J. (2016) ‘Speeding up innovation: building network structures for parallel innovation’, International Journal of Innovation Management, 20, 2, doi:10.1142/S1363919616500249.

[64] Sørensen, F., Sundbo, J. and Mattsson, J. (2013) ‘Organisational conditions for service encounter-based innovation’, Research Policy, 42, 8, pp.1446-56.

[65] Tidd, J., Bessant, J. and Pavitt, K. (2001) Managing Innovation - Integrating Technological, Market and Organizational Change, John Wiley, Chichester.

[66] Toivonen, M. and Tuominen, T. (2009) ‘Emergence of innovations in services’, Service Industries Journal, 29, 7, pp.887-902.

[67] Tukker, A. (2004) “Eight types of product-service system: eight ways to sustainability?‘, Experiences from SusProNet‘, Business Strategy and the Environment, 13, pp.246-60.

[68] von Hippel, E. (2005) Democratizing Innovation, MIT Press, Cambridge MA.

[69] Willer, R., Flynn, F. and Zak, S. (2012) ‘Structure, identity, and solidarity: a comparative field study of generalized and direct exchange’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 57, pp.119-55.

[70] Yin, R. (1994) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Sage, Thousand Oaks CA.

[71] Zervas, G., Proserpio, D. and Byers, J. (2015) The Rise of the Sharing Economy: Estimating the Impact of Airbnb on the Hotel Industry, Boston University School of Management Research Paper 2013-16, available from http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2366898 [accessed August 2015].