Schools of Thought in Islamophobia Studies: Prejudice, Racism, and Decoloniality

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Islamophobia Studies Journal

Volume 4, Issue 2

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Schools of Thought in Islamophobia Studies: Prejudice, Racism, and Decoloniality

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Author(s): Farid Hafez

Publication date (Print): 1 April 2018

Journal: Islamophobia Studies Journal

Publisher: Pluto Journals

Keywords: Islamophobia, anti-Muslim racism, prejudice studies, postcolonial studies, decoloniality, critical race theory

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Abstract

Anti-Muslim racism and Islamophobia are not just phenomena—they have increasingly become the focus of a new field of research: Islamophobia studies. Frequent national and international conferences and publications in this area bear witness to this. This article discusses the different prominent approaches to the concepts of Islamophobia and anti-Muslim racism that can be found in academic literature. It discusses the different theoretical strands within Islamophobia studies rather than the commonalities they share. In broad terms, three “schools of thought” can be identified in Islamophobia studies. The first conducts research on Islamophobia in the context of prejudice studies, the second is informed by racism studies and draws on the postcolonial tradition, and the third contributes to the second through the addition of a decolonial perspective.

Content

Author and article information

Contributors

Farid Hafez

Journal

Journal ID (doi): 10.2307/j50018795

Journal ID (jcode): islastudj

Title: Islamophobia Studies Journal

Publisher: Pluto Journals

ISSN: 2325-8381

ISSN: 2325-839X

Publication date (Print): 1 April 2018

Volume: 4

Issue: 2 ( doiID: 10.13169/islastudj.4.issue-2 )

Pages: 210-225

Affiliations

Department of Political Science and Sociology, University of Salzburg

Article

Publisher ID: islastudj.4.2.0210

DOI: 10.13169/islastudj.4.2.0210

SO-VID: 817fc9eb-a60c-4d1d-ae0a-565da9afc15c

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All content is freely available without charge to users or their institutions. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission of the publisher or the author. Articles published in the journal are distributed under a http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

History

Custom metadata

lang eng

ScienceOpen disciplines: Social & Behavioral Sciences

Keywords: critical race theory,postcolonial studies,anti-Muslim racism,prejudice studies,decoloniality,Islamophobia

References

Allen, C. 2010. Islamophobia. Aldershot, Burlington, Singapore, and Sydney: Routledge.
Attia, I. 2007. “Kulturrassismus und Gesellschaftskritik.” In Orient-und IslamBilder. Interdisziplinäre Beiträge zu Orientalismus und antimuslimischem Rassismus, edited by I. Attia, 5–28. Duisburg: unrast Verlag.
Attia, I. 2009. “Die ‘westliche Kultur’ und ihr Anderes. Zur Dekonstruktion von Orientalismus und antimuslimischen Rassismus.” Bielefeld. Transcript.
Attia, I., S. Köbsell, and N. Prasad. (eds). 2015. Dominanzkultur Reloaded. Neue Texte zu gesellschaftlichen Machtverhältnissen und ihren Wechselwirkungen. Bielefeld: transcript.
Balibar, É., I. Wallerstein, and M. Haupt. 1990. Rasse, Klasse, Nation: Ambivalente Identitäten. Hamburg: Argument Verlag.
Benz, W. 2009. “Einführung zur, Feindbild Muslim—Feindbild Jude.” In Islamfeindschaf und ihr Kontext. Dokumentation der Konferenz, Feindbild Muslim—Feindbild Jude, edited by W. Benz, 9–20. Berlin: Metropol Verlag.
Benz, W. 2011. Antisemitismus und Islamkritik. Bilanz und Perspektive. Berlin: Metropol Verlag.
Bhabha, H. K. 1999. Nation and Narration. London: Routledge.
Bleich, E. 2011. “What Is Islamophobia and How Much Is There? Theorizing and Measuring an Emerging Comparative Concept.” American Behavioral Scientist 55 (12): 1581–600.
Brown, L., G. H. Awad, E. J. Preas, V. Allen, J. Kenney, S. Roberts, and L. B. Lusk. 2013. “Investigating Prejudice toward Men Perceived to be Muslim. Cues of Foreignness versus Phenotype.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 43 (2): 237–45.
Brown, M. 2000. “Conceptualising Racism and Islamophobia.” In Comparative Perspectives on Racism, edited by J. Ter Wal and M. Verkuyten, 73–90. Aldershot, Burlington, Singapore, and Sydney: Ashgate.
Bunzl, M. 2007. Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia. Hatreds Old and New in Europe. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Cone, J. H. 1969. Black Theology and Black Power. New York: Harper & Row.
Decker, O., J. Kiess, and E. Brähler. 2016. “Die enthemmte Mitte.” In Autoritäre und rechtsextreme Einstellung in Deutschland. Die Leipziger Mitte-Studie, edited by O. Decker, J. Kiess, and E. Brähler, 49–58. Gießen: Psychosozial-Verlag.
Friedrich, S., and H. Schultes. 2013. “Mediale Verbindungen–antimuslimische Effekte.” Journal für Psychologie 21 (1): 1–28.
Grosfoguel, R. 2011. “Decolonizing Post-Colonial Studies and Paradigms of Political-Economy: Transmodernity, Decolonial Thinking and Global Coloniality.” Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World 1 (1): 1–37.
Grosfoguel, R. 2012. “The Multiple Faces of Islamophobia.” Islamophobia Studies Journal 1 (1): 9–33.
Grosfoguel, R. 2016. “What Is Racism?” Journal of World-Systems Research 22 (1): 9–15.
Hafez, F. 2010a. “Anstelle eines Vorworts.” In Jahrbuch für Islamophobieforschung, edited by F. Hafez. Bozen, Innsbruck, and Wien: Studienverlag.
Hafez, F. 2010b. Islamophober Populismus: Moschee- und Minarettbauverbote österreichischer Parlamentsparteien. Wiesbaden: VS.
Hafez, F. 2017. “Debating the 2015 Islam Law in Austrian Parliament: Between Legal Recognition and Islamophobic Populism.” Discourse & Society 28 (4): 392–412.
Hall, S. 1994. “Neue Ethnizitäten.” In Rassismus und kulturelle Identität, edited by S. Hall, vol. 226, 15–25. Hamburg: Argument Verlag.
Halliday, F. 1999. “‘Islamophobia’ Reconsidered.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 22 (5): 892–902.
Heitmeyer, W. 2002. “Gruppenbezogene Menschenfeindlichkeit: Die theoretische Konzeption und erste empirische Ergebnisse.” In Deutsche Zustände. Folge 1, edited by W. Heitmeyer, 15–34. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag.
Islamophobia Research and Documentation Project. 2016. “Working Definition.” Accessed April 20, 2017. https://www.crg.berkeley.edu/research-projects/islamophobia-research-documentation-project/.
Jaschke, H. G. 2013. Rechtsextremismus und Fremdenfeindlichkeit: Begriffe. Positionen, Praxisfelder. Heidelberg: VS.
Kallis, A. 2013. “Breaking Taboos and Mainstreaming the Extreme. The Debates on Restricting Islamic Symbols in Contemporary Europe.” In Right-Wing Populism in Europe. Politics and Discourse, edited by R. Wodak, M. Khosravinik, and B. Mral, 55–70. London: Bloomsbury.
Klug, B. 2012. “Islamophobia: A Concept Comes of Age.” Ethnicities 12 (5): 665–81.
Kreutzer, F. 2015. “Stigma, ‘Kopftuch’: Zur rassistischen Produktionvon Andersheit.” Bielefeld. Transcript.
Kyriakides, C., S. Virdee, and T. Modood. 2009. “Racism, Muslims and the National Imagination.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 35 (2): 289–308.
Lean, N. 2012. The Islamophobia Industry. How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims. London: Pluto.
Levey, G. B., and T. Modood. 2009. “Liberal Democracy, Multicultural Citizenship, and the Danish Cartoon Affair.” In Secularism, Religion and Multicultural Citizenship, edited by G. B. Levey and T. Modood, 216–42. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lugones, M. 2007. “Heterosexualism and the Colonial/Modern Gender System.” Hypatia 22 (1): 186–209.
Maldonado-Torres, N. 2007. “On the Coloniality of Being.” Cultural Studies 21 (2): 240–70.
Maldonado-Torres, N. n.d. “Outline of Ten Theses on Coloniality and Decoloniality.” Accessed May 10, 2017. http://frantzfanonfoundation-fondationfrantzfanon.com/IMG/pdf/maldonado-torres_outline_of_ten_theses-10.23.16_.pdf.
Mbembe, A. 2014. Kritik der schwarzen Vernunft. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp.
Meer, N., and T. Modood. 2009. “Refutations of Racism in the ‘Muslim question’.” Patterns of Prejudice 43 (3–4): 335–54.
Meer, N., and T. Modood. 2010. “Analysing the Growing Scepticism towards the Idea of Islamophobia.” Arches Quarterly 4 (7): 116–26.
Meer, N., and T. Modood. 2012. “For ‘Jewish’ Read ‘Muslim’? Islamophobia as a Form of Racialisation of Ethno-Religious Groups in Britain Today.” Islamophobia Studies Journal 1 (1): 34–53.
Mignolo, W. 2000. “The Geopolitics of Knowledge and the Colonial Difference.” South Atlantic Quarterly 101 (1): 57–96.
Miles, R., and M. Brown. 2004. Racism. London: Routledge.
Muftic, A. 2015. “Islamkritik. Ein Kampfbegriff? Ein Essay.” In Jahrbuch für Islamophobieforschung 2015, edited by F. Hafez, 83–99. Wien: New Academic Press.
Muftic, A. 2016. “Islamophobia Studies—Islamophobieforschung. Bibliography—Bibliographie.” July 7. Accessed April 15, 2017. http://sites.google.com/site/islamophobiastudies/islamophobieforschung—literaturliste.
Müller-Uri, F. 2014. Antimuslimischer Rassismus. Wien: Mandelbaum Verlag.
Opratko, B., and F. Müller-Uri. 2016. “Islamophobia as Anti-Muslim Racism: Racism without ‘Races.’ Racism without Racists.” Islamophobia Studies Journal 3 (2): 117–29.
Prasad, N. 2013. “Racist Feminisms. The Hegemonic Power of Feminist Actors in the Discourse on Immigration Policies.” In Prospects of Asian Migration. Transformation of Gender and Labour Relation/Perspektiven auf Asiatische Migration. Transformationen der Geschlechter- und Arbeitsverhältnisse, edited by S. Poma Poma and K. Pühl, 90–95. Berlin: Rosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung.
Priester, K. 2003. Rassismus – Eine Sozialgeschichte. Leipzig: Reclam Verlag.
Pucher, C. 2012. “Islamophobie in den Niederlanden und die Absenz indonesischer MuslimInnen. Ein Vergleich zwischen aktuellen und kolonialen Diskursen.” Austrian Studies in Social Anthropology 1: 75–87.
Quijano, A. 2007. “Coloniality and Modernity/Rationality.” Cultural Studies 21 (2): 168–78.
Ramm, C. 2009. “The ‘Sick Man’ beyond Europe. The Orientalization of Turkey and Turkish Immigrants in European Union Accession Discourses in Germany.” In Racism Postcolonialism Europe, edited by G. Hugan and I. Law, 102–15. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.
Saeed, A. 2007. “Media, Racism and Islamophobia: The Representation of Islam and Muslims in the Media.” Sociology Compass 1 (2): 443–62.
Said, E. 1978. Orientalism: Western Representations of the Orient. New York: Pantheon.
Said, E. 1979. Orientalism. New York: Vintage.
Sartre, J. P. 1976. Anti-Semite and Jew. An Exploration of the Etiology of Hate. New York: Schocken Books.
Sayyid, S. 2014. Recalling the Caliphate. Decolinization and World Order. London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.
Schiffer, S., and C. Wagner. 2011. “Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia—New Enemies, Old Patterns.” Race & Class 52 (3): 77–84.
Shumsky, D. 2004. “Post-Zionist Orientalism? Orientalist Discourse and Islamophobia among the Russian-Speaking Intelligentsia in Israel.” Social Identities 10 (1): 83–99.
Spivak, G. 1999. Can the Subaltern speak? Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Tamdgidi, M. 2012. “Beyond Islamophobia and Islamophilias Western Epistemic Racisms: Revisiting Runnymede Trust's Definition in a World-History Context.” Islamophobia Studies Journal 1 (1): 54–81.
Terkessidis, M. 2004. “Die Banalität des Rassismus: Migranten zweiter Generation entwickeln eine neue Perspektive.” Bielefeld. Transcript.
The Bridge Initiative. 2016a. “Video: Donald Trump—Wrong About Muslims.” March 1. Accessed March 25, 2016. http://bridge.georgetown.edu/donald-trump-wrong-about-muslims/.
The Bridge Initiative. 2016b. “What Is Islamophobia?” Accessed January 14, 2016. http://bridge.georgetown.edu/what-is-islamophobia/.
Ünal, F. 2016. “Islamophobia & Anti-Semitism: Comparing the Social Psychological Underpinnings of Anti-Semitic and Anti-Muslim Beliefs in Contemporary Germany.” Islamophobia Studies Journal 3 (2): 35–55.
Ureta, I., and A. Profanter. 2011. “Public Discourse and the Raising of Islamophobia: The Swiss Case.” In Media, Migration and Public Opinion: Myths, Prejudices and the Challenge of Attaining Mutual Understanding between Europe and North Africa, edited by I. Ureta, 239–63. New York: Peter Lang.
Wallerstein, I. 2007. Die Barbarei der anderen. Europäischer Universalismus. Berlin: Wagenbach Verlag.

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Allen, C. 2010. Islamophobia. Aldershot, Burlington, Singapore, and Sydney: Routledge.

[2] Attia, I. 2007. “Kulturrassismus und Gesellschaftskritik.” In Orient-und IslamBilder. Interdisziplinäre Beiträge zu Orientalismus und antimuslimischem Rassismus, edited by I. Attia, 5–28. Duisburg: unrast Verlag.

[3] Attia, I. 2009. “Die ‘westliche Kultur’ und ihr Anderes. Zur Dekonstruktion von Orientalismus und antimuslimischen Rassismus.” Bielefeld. Transcript.

[4] Attia, I., S. Köbsell, and N. Prasad. (eds). 2015. Dominanzkultur Reloaded. Neue Texte zu gesellschaftlichen Machtverhältnissen und ihren Wechselwirkungen. Bielefeld: transcript.

[5] Balibar, É., I. Wallerstein, and M. Haupt. 1990. Rasse, Klasse, Nation: Ambivalente Identitäten. Hamburg: Argument Verlag.

[6] Benz, W. 2009. “Einführung zur, Feindbild Muslim—Feindbild Jude.” In Islamfeindschaf und ihr Kontext. Dokumentation der Konferenz, Feindbild Muslim—Feindbild Jude, edited by W. Benz, 9–20. Berlin: Metropol Verlag.

[7] Benz, W. 2011. Antisemitismus und Islamkritik. Bilanz und Perspektive. Berlin: Metropol Verlag.

[8] Bhabha, H. K. 1999. Nation and Narration. London: Routledge.

[9] Bleich, E. 2011. “What Is Islamophobia and How Much Is There? Theorizing and Measuring an Emerging Comparative Concept.” American Behavioral Scientist 55 (12): 1581–600.

[10] Brown, L., G. H. Awad, E. J. Preas, V. Allen, J. Kenney, S. Roberts, and L. B. Lusk. 2013. “Investigating Prejudice toward Men Perceived to be Muslim. Cues of Foreignness versus Phenotype.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 43 (2): 237–45.

[11] Brown, M. 2000. “Conceptualising Racism and Islamophobia.” In Comparative Perspectives on Racism, edited by J. Ter Wal and M. Verkuyten, 73–90. Aldershot, Burlington, Singapore, and Sydney: Ashgate.

[12] Bunzl, M. 2007. Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia. Hatreds Old and New in Europe. Chicago: Chicago University Press.

[13] Cone, J. H. 1969. Black Theology and Black Power. New York: Harper & Row.

[14] Decker, O., J. Kiess, and E. Brähler. 2016. “Die enthemmte Mitte.” In Autoritäre und rechtsextreme Einstellung in Deutschland. Die Leipziger Mitte-Studie, edited by O. Decker, J. Kiess, and E. Brähler, 49–58. Gießen: Psychosozial-Verlag.

[15] Friedrich, S., and H. Schultes. 2013. “Mediale Verbindungen–antimuslimische Effekte.” Journal für Psychologie 21 (1): 1–28.

[16] Grosfoguel, R. 2011. “Decolonizing Post-Colonial Studies and Paradigms of Political-Economy: Transmodernity, Decolonial Thinking and Global Coloniality.” Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World 1 (1): 1–37.

[17] Grosfoguel, R. 2012. “The Multiple Faces of Islamophobia.” Islamophobia Studies Journal 1 (1): 9–33.

[18] Grosfoguel, R. 2016. “What Is Racism?” Journal of World-Systems Research 22 (1): 9–15.

[19] Hafez, F. 2010a. “Anstelle eines Vorworts.” In Jahrbuch für Islamophobieforschung, edited by F. Hafez. Bozen, Innsbruck, and Wien: Studienverlag.

[20] Hafez, F. 2010b. Islamophober Populismus: Moschee- und Minarettbauverbote österreichischer Parlamentsparteien. Wiesbaden: VS.

[21] Hafez, F. 2017. “Debating the 2015 Islam Law in Austrian Parliament: Between Legal Recognition and Islamophobic Populism.” Discourse & Society 28 (4): 392–412.

[22] Hall, S. 1994. “Neue Ethnizitäten.” In Rassismus und kulturelle Identität, edited by S. Hall, vol. 226, 15–25. Hamburg: Argument Verlag.

[23] Halliday, F. 1999. “‘Islamophobia’ Reconsidered.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 22 (5): 892–902.

[24] Heitmeyer, W. 2002. “Gruppenbezogene Menschenfeindlichkeit: Die theoretische Konzeption und erste empirische Ergebnisse.” In Deutsche Zustände. Folge 1, edited by W. Heitmeyer, 15–34. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag.

[25] Islamophobia Research and Documentation Project. 2016. “Working Definition.” Accessed April 20, 2017. https://www.crg.berkeley.edu/research-projects/islamophobia-research-documentation-project/.

[26] Jaschke, H. G. 2013. Rechtsextremismus und Fremdenfeindlichkeit: Begriffe. Positionen, Praxisfelder. Heidelberg: VS.

[27] Kallis, A. 2013. “Breaking Taboos and Mainstreaming the Extreme. The Debates on Restricting Islamic Symbols in Contemporary Europe.” In Right-Wing Populism in Europe. Politics and Discourse, edited by R. Wodak, M. Khosravinik, and B. Mral, 55–70. London: Bloomsbury.

[28] Klug, B. 2012. “Islamophobia: A Concept Comes of Age.” Ethnicities 12 (5): 665–81.

[29] Kreutzer, F. 2015. “Stigma, ‘Kopftuch’: Zur rassistischen Produktionvon Andersheit.” Bielefeld. Transcript.

[30] Kyriakides, C., S. Virdee, and T. Modood. 2009. “Racism, Muslims and the National Imagination.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 35 (2): 289–308.

[31] Lean, N. 2012. The Islamophobia Industry. How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims. London: Pluto.

[32] Levey, G. B., and T. Modood. 2009. “Liberal Democracy, Multicultural Citizenship, and the Danish Cartoon Affair.” In Secularism, Religion and Multicultural Citizenship, edited by G. B. Levey and T. Modood, 216–42. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[33] Lugones, M. 2007. “Heterosexualism and the Colonial/Modern Gender System.” Hypatia 22 (1): 186–209.

[34] Maldonado-Torres, N. 2007. “On the Coloniality of Being.” Cultural Studies 21 (2): 240–70.

[35] Maldonado-Torres, N. n.d. “Outline of Ten Theses on Coloniality and Decoloniality.” Accessed May 10, 2017. http://frantzfanonfoundation-fondationfrantzfanon.com/IMG/pdf/maldonado-torres_outline_of_ten_theses-10.23.16_.pdf.

[36] Mbembe, A. 2014. Kritik der schwarzen Vernunft. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp.

[37] Meer, N., and T. Modood. 2009. “Refutations of Racism in the ‘Muslim question’.” Patterns of Prejudice 43 (3–4): 335–54.

[38] Meer, N., and T. Modood. 2010. “Analysing the Growing Scepticism towards the Idea of Islamophobia.” Arches Quarterly 4 (7): 116–26.

[39] Meer, N., and T. Modood. 2012. “For ‘Jewish’ Read ‘Muslim’? Islamophobia as a Form of Racialisation of Ethno-Religious Groups in Britain Today.” Islamophobia Studies Journal 1 (1): 34–53.

[40] Mignolo, W. 2000. “The Geopolitics of Knowledge and the Colonial Difference.” South Atlantic Quarterly 101 (1): 57–96.

[41] Miles, R., and M. Brown. 2004. Racism. London: Routledge.

[42] Muftic, A. 2015. “Islamkritik. Ein Kampfbegriff? Ein Essay.” In Jahrbuch für Islamophobieforschung 2015, edited by F. Hafez, 83–99. Wien: New Academic Press.

[43] Muftic, A. 2016. “Islamophobia Studies—Islamophobieforschung. Bibliography—Bibliographie.” July 7. Accessed April 15, 2017. http://sites.google.com/site/islamophobiastudies/islamophobieforschung—literaturliste.

[44] Müller-Uri, F. 2014. Antimuslimischer Rassismus. Wien: Mandelbaum Verlag.

[45] Opratko, B., and F. Müller-Uri. 2016. “Islamophobia as Anti-Muslim Racism: Racism without ‘Races.’ Racism without Racists.” Islamophobia Studies Journal 3 (2): 117–29.

[46] Prasad, N. 2013. “Racist Feminisms. The Hegemonic Power of Feminist Actors in the Discourse on Immigration Policies.” In Prospects of Asian Migration. Transformation of Gender and Labour Relation/Perspektiven auf Asiatische Migration. Transformationen der Geschlechter- und Arbeitsverhältnisse, edited by S. Poma Poma and K. Pühl, 90–95. Berlin: Rosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung.

[47] Priester, K. 2003. Rassismus – Eine Sozialgeschichte. Leipzig: Reclam Verlag.

[48] Pucher, C. 2012. “Islamophobie in den Niederlanden und die Absenz indonesischer MuslimInnen. Ein Vergleich zwischen aktuellen und kolonialen Diskursen.” Austrian Studies in Social Anthropology 1: 75–87.

[49] Quijano, A. 2007. “Coloniality and Modernity/Rationality.” Cultural Studies 21 (2): 168–78.

[50] Ramm, C. 2009. “The ‘Sick Man’ beyond Europe. The Orientalization of Turkey and Turkish Immigrants in European Union Accession Discourses in Germany.” In Racism Postcolonialism Europe, edited by G. Hugan and I. Law, 102–15. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.

[51] Saeed, A. 2007. “Media, Racism and Islamophobia: The Representation of Islam and Muslims in the Media.” Sociology Compass 1 (2): 443–62.

[52] Said, E. 1978. Orientalism: Western Representations of the Orient. New York: Pantheon.

[53] Said, E. 1979. Orientalism. New York: Vintage.

[54] Sartre, J. P. 1976. Anti-Semite and Jew. An Exploration of the Etiology of Hate. New York: Schocken Books.

[55] Sayyid, S. 2014. Recalling the Caliphate. Decolinization and World Order. London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.

[56] Schiffer, S., and C. Wagner. 2011. “Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia—New Enemies, Old Patterns.” Race & Class 52 (3): 77–84.

[57] Shumsky, D. 2004. “Post-Zionist Orientalism? Orientalist Discourse and Islamophobia among the Russian-Speaking Intelligentsia in Israel.” Social Identities 10 (1): 83–99.

[58] Spivak, G. 1999. Can the Subaltern speak? Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[59] Tamdgidi, M. 2012. “Beyond Islamophobia and Islamophilias Western Epistemic Racisms: Revisiting Runnymede Trust's Definition in a World-History Context.” Islamophobia Studies Journal 1 (1): 54–81.

[60] Terkessidis, M. 2004. “Die Banalität des Rassismus: Migranten zweiter Generation entwickeln eine neue Perspektive.” Bielefeld. Transcript.

[61] The Bridge Initiative. 2016a. “Video: Donald Trump—Wrong About Muslims.” March 1. Accessed March 25, 2016. http://bridge.georgetown.edu/donald-trump-wrong-about-muslims/.

[62] The Bridge Initiative. 2016b. “What Is Islamophobia?” Accessed January 14, 2016. http://bridge.georgetown.edu/what-is-islamophobia/.

[63] Ünal, F. 2016. “Islamophobia & Anti-Semitism: Comparing the Social Psychological Underpinnings of Anti-Semitic and Anti-Muslim Beliefs in Contemporary Germany.” Islamophobia Studies Journal 3 (2): 35–55.

[64] Ureta, I., and A. Profanter. 2011. “Public Discourse and the Raising of Islamophobia: The Swiss Case.” In Media, Migration and Public Opinion: Myths, Prejudices and the Challenge of Attaining Mutual Understanding between Europe and North Africa, edited by I. Ureta, 239–63. New York: Peter Lang.

[65] Wallerstein, I. 2007. Die Barbarei der anderen. Europäischer Universalismus. Berlin: Wagenbach Verlag.