Islamophobia Studies in India: Problems and Prospects

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Islamophobia Studies Journal

Volume 7, Issue 1

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Article: found

Is Open Access

Islamophobia Studies in India: Problems and Prospects

research-article

Author(s): Ashraf Kunnummal ¹

Publication date (Electronic, pub): 16 June 2022

Publication date (Electronic, collection): 1 January 2022

Journal: Islamophobia Studies Journal

Publisher: Pluto Journals

Keywords: Islamophobia in India, Hindutva, Hindu Nationalist, Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), Babri Masjid, decolonial horizon

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Abstract

This article aims to situate the problems and prospects of thinking about critical Islamophobia studies in the context of India. In doing so, first, the article traces the technical and political impasses to the emergence of critical Islamophobia studies in India by looking at the problem of denial of Islamophobia with respect to Indian nationalism and at the same time the rise of a new security paradigm in the context of the global war on terror. A new approach on critical Islamophobia studies, which is cognizant towards the mass desire of Islamophobia, is introduced in order to understand its popular base in India. Secondly, the limitations of the framework of communalism in developing critical Islamophobia studies are analyzed in light of the biopolitical aspects of state and society in India. Finally, the article proposes a preliminary roadmap to a new approach to understand the politics of Islamophobia as an active desire based in practice in India and introduces a new typology of precautionary and proactionary Islamophobia in the context of rising Hindu nationalism by locating its normative and derivative dimensions.

Content

Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (doi): 10.13169/islastudj

Title: Islamophobia Studies Journal

Abbreviated Title: ISJ

Publisher: Pluto Journals

ISSN (Electronic): 2325-8381

Publication date (Electronic, pub): 16 June 2022

Publication date (Electronic, collection): 1 January 2022

Volume: 7

Issue: 1

Pages: 25-44

Affiliations

[1 ] Ashraf Kunnummal is Postdoctoral Fellow in Johannesburg Institute of Advance Studies at University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Email: ashrafk497@gmail.com;

Article

DOI: 10.13169/islastudj.7.1.0025

SO-VID: 455cf734-1bef-4d37-b849-e71de1ad2744

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All content is freely available without charge to users or their institutions. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission of the publisher or the author. Articles published in the journal are distributed under a http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

History

Page count

Pages: 20

References

Tahir Abbas. 2019a. Islamophobia and Radicalization: A Vicious Cycle. London: Oxford University Press.
Tahir Abbas. 2019b. “ Islamophobia as the Hidden Hand of Structural and Cultural Racism.” In The Routledge International Handbook of Islamophobia, edited by Irene ZempiImran Awan, 32– 41. Abingdon: Routledge. Accessed ;April 16, 2021.
Giorgio Agamben. 2005. State of Exception, translated by K. Attell. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Irfan Ahmad. 2009. Islamism and Democracy in India: The Transformation of the Jamaat-e-Islami. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Irfan Ahmad. 2017. “ Injustice and the New World Order: An Anthropological Perspective on ‘Terrorism’ in India.” Critical Studies on Terrorism, 10, no. 1 ( September): 115– 37.
Juhi Ahuja. 2019. “ Protecting Holy Cows: Hindu Vigilantism Against Muslims in India.” In Vigilantism Against Migrants and Minorities, edited by Tore BjørgoMiroslav Mareš, 55– 68. New York: Routledge.
Christopher Allen. 2010. Islamophobia. Farnham: Ashgate .
G. Aloysius 1999. Nationalism without a Nation in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
M. T. Ansari 2016. Islam and Nationalism in India: South Indian Contexts. New York: Routledge.
Hannah Arendt. 2006. Eichmann in Jerusalem. London: Penguin.
Robert Beshara. 2019. Decolonial Psychoanalysis: Towards Critical Islamophobia Studies. London: Routledge.
Manu Bhagavan. 2008. “ The Hindutva Underground: Hindu Nationalism and the Indian National Congress in Late Colonial and Early Post-Colonial India.” Economic and Political Weekly, 43, no. 37 ( September): 39– 48.
Partha Chatterjee. 2006. The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World. New York: Columbia University Press.
Tom Conley. 2005. “ Molar.” In The Deleuze Dictionary, edited by Adrian Parr, 171– 2. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Damian CoxLevine MichaelNewman Saul. 2009. Politics Most Unusual: Violence, Sovereignty and Democracy in the “War on Terror”. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Sowmya Dechamma. 2014. “ On Teaching Sanskrit and Mother Tongues: An Open Letter to Smriti Irani.” Economic and Political Weekly, 49, no. 47 ( November). https://www.epw.in/journal/2014/47/web-exclusives/teaching-sanskrit-and-mother-tongues.html. Accessed June 14, 2021.
Gilles DeleuzeFélix Guattari. 2002. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. London: Continuum.
Gilles DeleuzeFélix Guattari. 2003. Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. London: Continuum.
Asghar Ali Engineer. 1995. “ Kashmir: Autonomy Only Solution.” Economic and Political Weekly, 30, no. 35 ( September): 2167– 8.
Roberto Esposito. 2008. Bios: Biopolitics and Philosophy, Translated by Timothy Campbell, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Jason Keith Fernandes. 2020. “ Probing into the Freedoms of Queer Liberation in India.” Economic and Political Weekly, 55, no. 1 ( January): 54– 62.
Dorothy M. Figueira 2002. Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority through Myths of Identity. New York: State University of New York Press.
Paul Gilroy. 1993. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Ramon Grosfoguel. 2012. “ The Multiple Faces of Islamophobia.” Islamophobia Studies Journal, 1, no. 1: 9– 33.
Ajay Gudavarthy. 2019. “ There is Communalism—Not Islamophobia—in India.” The Wire, May 1. https://thewire.in/communalism/muslim-prejudice-islamophobia-india. Accessed May 14, 2020.
Farid Hafez. 2018. “ Working Definition of Islamophobia.” http://jahrbuch-islamophobie.de/islamophobia/. Accessed December 11, 2018.
Zafar Iqbal. 2020. Islamophobia: History, Context and Deconstruction. London: Sage.
Richard Jackson. 2005. “ Security, Democracy, and the Rhetoric of Counter-Terrorism.” Democracy and Security, 1, no. 2 ( December): 147– 71.
Christopher Jaffrelot. 2003. India’s Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North India. London: Hurst & Co.
Reece Jones. 2012. Border Walls: Security and the War on Terror in the United States, India and Israel. London: Zed Books.
Mohamed Junaid. 2013. “ Death and Life under Occupation: Space, Violence and Memory in Kashmir.” In Everyday Occupations: Experiencing Militarism in South Asia and the Middle East, edited by Kamala Visweswaran, 158– 90. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Sadhana. Kala 2020. “ Macron, Islamists, Islamophobia, India.” Times of India, November 2, 2020. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/methink/macron-islamists-islamophobia-india/. Accessed May 14, 2021.
Omar Khalidi. 1995. Indian Muslims s ince Independence. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Private Limited.
Brian Klug. 2012. “ Islamophobia: A Concept Comes of Age.” Ethnicities, 12, no. 5 ( October): 665– 81.
Gi Yeon Koo. 2018. “ Islamophobia and the Politics of Representation of Islam in Korea.” Journal of Korean Religions, 9, no. 1 ( April): 159– 92.
Ashraf KunnummalEsack Farid. 2021. “ Traveling Islamophobia in the Global South: Thinking through the Consumption of Malala Yousafzai in India.” Journal for the Study of Religion, 34, no. 1 ( May): 1– 26.
Luis Lobo-GuerreroDillon Michael. 2009. “ The Biopolitical Imaginary of Species Being.” Theory Culture and Society, 26, no. 1 ( January): 1– 23.
Ritty A. Lukose 2009. Liberalization′s Children: Gender, Youth, and Consumer Citizenship in Globalizing India. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Sunaina Maira. 2011. “ Manifestations: Islamophobia and the War on Terror: Youth, Citizenship, and Dissent.” In Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century, edited by John L. EspositoIbrahim Kalin, 109– 26. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Brian Massumi. 1999. A User’s Guide to Capitalism and Schizophrenia: Deviations from Deleuze and Guattari. Cambridge, MA, and London: MIT Press.
Todd May. 2001. Our Practices, our Selves: Or, What it Means to Be Human. University Park, PA: Penn State Press.
Todd May. 2013. “ Desire and Ideology in Fascism.” In Deleuze and Fascism: Security: War: Aesthetics, edited by Brad EvansJulian Reid, 13– 26. New York: Routledge.
Achille Mbembe. 2003. “ Necropolitics.” Public Culture, 15, no. 1 (Winter): 11– 40.
Pratap Bhanu Mehta. 2010. “ Kashmir as a Syndrome.” India International Centre Quarterly, 37, no. 1/4 (Winter 2010–Spring 2011): 2– 11.
Heidi Safia Mirza. 2013. “ Embodying the Veil: Muslim Women and Gendered Islamophobia in ‘New Times’.” In Gender, Religion and Education in a Chaotic Postmodern World, edited by Zehavit GrossLynn DaviesAl-Khansaa Diab, 303– 318. Dordrecht: Springer.
Lisa Mitchell. 2009. Language, Emotion, and Politics in South India: The Making of a Mother Tongue. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Kawtar Najib| Teeple Hopkins Carmen. 2020. “ Geographies of Islamophobia.” Social and Cultural Geography, 21, no. 1 ( December): 449– 57.
Gail Omvedt. 2011. Understanding Caste: From Buddha to Ambedkar and Beyond. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan.
Caroline OsellaFilippo Osella. 2007. “ Muslim Style in South India.” Fashion Theory, 11, no. 1 ( April): 233– 52.
Goldie Osuri. 2017. “ Imperialism, Colonialism and Sovereignty in the (Post)Colony: India and Kashmir.” Third World Quarterly, 38, no. 1 ( July): 2428– 43.
Goldie OsuriAther Zia. 2020. “ Kashmir and Palestine: Archives of Coloniality and Solidarity.” Identities, 27, no. 1 ( May): 249– 66.
K. N. Panikkar 1993. “ Culture and Communalism.” Social Scientist, 21, no. 1/4 ( July–August): 24– 31.
K. N. Panikkar 2015. “ Communalism.” In Key Concepts in Modern Indian Studies, edited by Gita Dharampal-FrickMonika Kirloskar-SteinbachRachel DwyerJahnavi Phalkey, 46– 9. New York: New York University Press.
Jasbir K. Puar 2007. Terrorist Assemblages: Homonationalism in Queer Times. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Ram Puniyani. 2020. “ Hindutva’s Social Engineering: Dalits’ Participation in the Anti-Muslim Pogrom, Gujarat 2002.” In Hindutva and Dalit Perspectives for Understanding Communal Praxis, edited by Anand Teltumbde, 69– 83. New Delhi: Sage.
Julian Reid. 2006. The Biopolitics of War on Terror: Life Struggles, Liberal Modernity, and the Defence of Logistical Societies. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Rowena Robinson. 2008. “ Religion, Socio-economic Backwardness and Discrimination: The Case of Indian Muslims.” Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 44, no. 1 ( October): 194– 200.
Saleh Yassinal-Haj. 2019. “ Terror, Genocide and the ‘ Genocratic’ Turn.” Translated by Alex Rowell. Al-Jumhuriya, September 19. http://www.aljumhuriya.net/en/content/terror-genocide-and-%E2%80%9Cgenocratic%E2%80%9D-turn. Accessed June 10, 2021.
Sumit Sarkar. 2005. “ Indian Nationalism and the Politics of Hindutva.” In Making India Hindu: Religion, Community and the Politics of Democracy in India, edited by David Ludden, 270– 94. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Salman Sayyid. 2014. Recalling the Caliphate: Decolonization and World Order. London: Hurst Publishers.
Satadru Sen. 2015. “ Fascism without Fascists? A Comparative Look at Hindutva and Zionism.” South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 38, no. 1 ( October): 690– 711.
Ornit Shani. 2007. Communalism, Caste and Hindu Nationalism: The Violence in Gujarat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jyotirmaya Sharma. 2011. Hindutva: Exploring the Idea of Hindu Nationalism. New Delhi: Penguin Books.
Kanwal Sibal. 2020. “ It is Hinduphobia to Accuse India of Islamophobia. ” May 8. http://www.newageislam.com/islam-and-politics/kanwal-sibal/it-is-hinduphobiato-accuse-india-of-islamophobia/d/121791. Accessed August 20, 2021.
Ujjwal Kumar Singh. 2006. “ The Silent Erosion: Anti-Terror Laws and Shifting Contours of Jurisprudence in India.” Diogenes, 212: 116– 33.
Ujjwal Kumar Singh. 2012. “ Mapping Anti-Terror Legal Regimes in India.” In Global Anti-Terrorism Law and Policy, edited by Victor V. RamrajMichael HorKent RoachGeorge William, 420– 46. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mohammed Sinan SiyechAkanksha Narain. 2018. “ Beef-Related Violence in India: An Expression of Islamophobia.” Islamophobia Studies Journal, 4, no. 1 (Spring): 181– 94.
Lisa Stampnitzky. 2013. Disciplining Terror: How Experts Invented “Terrorism.” London: Cambridge University Press.
Shabnum Tejani. 2007. Indian Secularism: A Social and Intellectual History 1890–1950. New Delhi: Permanent Black.
Anand Teltumbde. 2020. “ Introduction to the Revised Edition.” In Hindutva and Dalits Perspectives for Understanding Communal Praxis, edited by Anand Teltumbde, xiii– lx. New Delhi: Sage.
David Tyrer. 2013. The Politics of Islamophobia: Race, Power and Fantasy. London: Pluto Press.
Sanober Umar. 2019. “ Constructing the ‘ Citizen Enemy’: The Impact of the Enemy Property Act of 1968 on India’s Muslims.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 39, no. 1 ( November): 457– 77.
Surya Prakash UpadhyayRowena Robinson. 2012. “ Revisiting Communalism and Fundamentalism in India.” Economic and Political Weekly, 47, no. 1 ( September): 35– 57.
Ather Zia. 2018. “ The Killable Kashmiri Body: The Life and Execution of Afzal Guru.” In Resisting Occupation in Kashmir, edited by H. DuschinskiM. BhanA. ZiaC. Mahmood, 103– 28. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Ather Zia. 2019. Resisting Disappearance: Military Occupation and Women’s Activism in Kashmir. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Reza Zia-Ebrahimi. 2020. “ The French Origins of ‘Islamophobia Denial’.” Patterns of Prejudice, 54, no. 1 ( March): 315– 46.
Jasmine Zine. 2006. “ Unveiled Sentiments: Gendered Islamophobia and Experiences of Veiling among Muslim Girls in a Canadian Islamic School.” Equity and Excellence in Education, 39, no. 1 ( November): 239– 52.

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Tahir Abbas. 2019a. Islamophobia and Radicalization: A Vicious Cycle. London: Oxford University Press.

[2] Tahir Abbas. 2019b. “ Islamophobia as the Hidden Hand of Structural and Cultural Racism.” In The Routledge International Handbook of Islamophobia, edited by Irene ZempiImran Awan, 32– 41. Abingdon: Routledge. Accessed ;April 16, 2021.

[3] Giorgio Agamben. 2005. State of Exception, translated by K. Attell. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

[4] Irfan Ahmad. 2009. Islamism and Democracy in India: The Transformation of the Jamaat-e-Islami. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

[5] Irfan Ahmad. 2017. “ Injustice and the New World Order: An Anthropological Perspective on ‘Terrorism’ in India.” Critical Studies on Terrorism, 10, no. 1 ( September): 115– 37.

[6] Juhi Ahuja. 2019. “ Protecting Holy Cows: Hindu Vigilantism Against Muslims in India.” In Vigilantism Against Migrants and Minorities, edited by Tore BjørgoMiroslav Mareš, 55– 68. New York: Routledge.

[7] Christopher Allen. 2010. Islamophobia. Farnham: Ashgate .

[8] G. Aloysius 1999. Nationalism without a Nation in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

[9] M. T. Ansari 2016. Islam and Nationalism in India: South Indian Contexts. New York: Routledge.

[10] Hannah Arendt. 2006. Eichmann in Jerusalem. London: Penguin.

[11] Robert Beshara. 2019. Decolonial Psychoanalysis: Towards Critical Islamophobia Studies. London: Routledge.

[12] Manu Bhagavan. 2008. “ The Hindutva Underground: Hindu Nationalism and the Indian National Congress in Late Colonial and Early Post-Colonial India.” Economic and Political Weekly, 43, no. 37 ( September): 39– 48.

[13] Partha Chatterjee. 2006. The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World. New York: Columbia University Press.

[14] Tom Conley. 2005. “ Molar.” In The Deleuze Dictionary, edited by Adrian Parr, 171– 2. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

[15] Damian CoxLevine MichaelNewman Saul. 2009. Politics Most Unusual: Violence, Sovereignty and Democracy in the “War on Terror”. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

[16] Sowmya Dechamma. 2014. “ On Teaching Sanskrit and Mother Tongues: An Open Letter to Smriti Irani.” Economic and Political Weekly, 49, no. 47 ( November). https://www.epw.in/journal/2014/47/web-exclusives/teaching-sanskrit-and-mother-tongues.html. Accessed June 14, 2021.

[17] Gilles DeleuzeFélix Guattari. 2002. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. London: Continuum.

[18] Gilles DeleuzeFélix Guattari. 2003. Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. London: Continuum.

[19] Asghar Ali Engineer. 1995. “ Kashmir: Autonomy Only Solution.” Economic and Political Weekly, 30, no. 35 ( September): 2167– 8.

[20] Roberto Esposito. 2008. Bios: Biopolitics and Philosophy, Translated by Timothy Campbell, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

[21] Jason Keith Fernandes. 2020. “ Probing into the Freedoms of Queer Liberation in India.” Economic and Political Weekly, 55, no. 1 ( January): 54– 62.

[22] Dorothy M. Figueira 2002. Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority through Myths of Identity. New York: State University of New York Press.

[23] Paul Gilroy. 1993. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[24] Ramon Grosfoguel. 2012. “ The Multiple Faces of Islamophobia.” Islamophobia Studies Journal, 1, no. 1: 9– 33.

[25] Ajay Gudavarthy. 2019. “ There is Communalism—Not Islamophobia—in India.” The Wire, May 1. https://thewire.in/communalism/muslim-prejudice-islamophobia-india. Accessed May 14, 2020.

[26] Farid Hafez. 2018. “ Working Definition of Islamophobia.” http://jahrbuch-islamophobie.de/islamophobia/. Accessed December 11, 2018.

[27] Zafar Iqbal. 2020. Islamophobia: History, Context and Deconstruction. London: Sage.

[28] Richard Jackson. 2005. “ Security, Democracy, and the Rhetoric of Counter-Terrorism.” Democracy and Security, 1, no. 2 ( December): 147– 71.

[29] Christopher Jaffrelot. 2003. India’s Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North India. London: Hurst & Co.

[30] Reece Jones. 2012. Border Walls: Security and the War on Terror in the United States, India and Israel. London: Zed Books.

[31] Mohamed Junaid. 2013. “ Death and Life under Occupation: Space, Violence and Memory in Kashmir.” In Everyday Occupations: Experiencing Militarism in South Asia and the Middle East, edited by Kamala Visweswaran, 158– 90. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

[32] Sadhana. Kala 2020. “ Macron, Islamists, Islamophobia, India.” Times of India, November 2, 2020. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/methink/macron-islamists-islamophobia-india/. Accessed May 14, 2021.

[33] Omar Khalidi. 1995. Indian Muslims s ince Independence. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Private Limited.

[34] Brian Klug. 2012. “ Islamophobia: A Concept Comes of Age.” Ethnicities, 12, no. 5 ( October): 665– 81.

[35] Gi Yeon Koo. 2018. “ Islamophobia and the Politics of Representation of Islam in Korea.” Journal of Korean Religions, 9, no. 1 ( April): 159– 92.

[36] Ashraf KunnummalEsack Farid. 2021. “ Traveling Islamophobia in the Global South: Thinking through the Consumption of Malala Yousafzai in India.” Journal for the Study of Religion, 34, no. 1 ( May): 1– 26.

[37] Luis Lobo-GuerreroDillon Michael. 2009. “ The Biopolitical Imaginary of Species Being.” Theory Culture and Society, 26, no. 1 ( January): 1– 23.

[38] Ritty A. Lukose 2009. Liberalization′s Children: Gender, Youth, and Consumer Citizenship in Globalizing India. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

[39] Sunaina Maira. 2011. “ Manifestations: Islamophobia and the War on Terror: Youth, Citizenship, and Dissent.” In Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century, edited by John L. EspositoIbrahim Kalin, 109– 26. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[40] Brian Massumi. 1999. A User’s Guide to Capitalism and Schizophrenia: Deviations from Deleuze and Guattari. Cambridge, MA, and London: MIT Press.

[41] Todd May. 2001. Our Practices, our Selves: Or, What it Means to Be Human. University Park, PA: Penn State Press.

[42] Todd May. 2013. “ Desire and Ideology in Fascism.” In Deleuze and Fascism: Security: War: Aesthetics, edited by Brad EvansJulian Reid, 13– 26. New York: Routledge.

[43] Achille Mbembe. 2003. “ Necropolitics.” Public Culture, 15, no. 1 (Winter): 11– 40.

[44] Pratap Bhanu Mehta. 2010. “ Kashmir as a Syndrome.” India International Centre Quarterly, 37, no. 1/4 (Winter 2010–Spring 2011): 2– 11.

[45] Heidi Safia Mirza. 2013. “ Embodying the Veil: Muslim Women and Gendered Islamophobia in ‘New Times’.” In Gender, Religion and Education in a Chaotic Postmodern World, edited by Zehavit GrossLynn DaviesAl-Khansaa Diab, 303– 318. Dordrecht: Springer.

[46] Lisa Mitchell. 2009. Language, Emotion, and Politics in South India: The Making of a Mother Tongue. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

[47] Kawtar Najib| Teeple Hopkins Carmen. 2020. “ Geographies of Islamophobia.” Social and Cultural Geography, 21, no. 1 ( December): 449– 57.

[48] Gail Omvedt. 2011. Understanding Caste: From Buddha to Ambedkar and Beyond. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan.

[49] Caroline OsellaFilippo Osella. 2007. “ Muslim Style in South India.” Fashion Theory, 11, no. 1 ( April): 233– 52.

[50] Goldie Osuri. 2017. “ Imperialism, Colonialism and Sovereignty in the (Post)Colony: India and Kashmir.” Third World Quarterly, 38, no. 1 ( July): 2428– 43.

[51] Goldie OsuriAther Zia. 2020. “ Kashmir and Palestine: Archives of Coloniality and Solidarity.” Identities, 27, no. 1 ( May): 249– 66.

[52] K. N. Panikkar 1993. “ Culture and Communalism.” Social Scientist, 21, no. 1/4 ( July–August): 24– 31.

[53] K. N. Panikkar 2015. “ Communalism.” In Key Concepts in Modern Indian Studies, edited by Gita Dharampal-FrickMonika Kirloskar-SteinbachRachel DwyerJahnavi Phalkey, 46– 9. New York: New York University Press.

[54] Jasbir K. Puar 2007. Terrorist Assemblages: Homonationalism in Queer Times. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

[55] Ram Puniyani. 2020. “ Hindutva’s Social Engineering: Dalits’ Participation in the Anti-Muslim Pogrom, Gujarat 2002.” In Hindutva and Dalit Perspectives for Understanding Communal Praxis, edited by Anand Teltumbde, 69– 83. New Delhi: Sage.

[56] Julian Reid. 2006. The Biopolitics of War on Terror: Life Struggles, Liberal Modernity, and the Defence of Logistical Societies. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

[57] Rowena Robinson. 2008. “ Religion, Socio-economic Backwardness and Discrimination: The Case of Indian Muslims.” Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 44, no. 1 ( October): 194– 200.

[58] Saleh Yassinal-Haj. 2019. “ Terror, Genocide and the ‘ Genocratic’ Turn.” Translated by Alex Rowell. Al-Jumhuriya, September 19. http://www.aljumhuriya.net/en/content/terror-genocide-and-%E2%80%9Cgenocratic%E2%80%9D-turn. Accessed June 10, 2021.

[59] Sumit Sarkar. 2005. “ Indian Nationalism and the Politics of Hindutva.” In Making India Hindu: Religion, Community and the Politics of Democracy in India, edited by David Ludden, 270– 94. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

[60] Salman Sayyid. 2014. Recalling the Caliphate: Decolonization and World Order. London: Hurst Publishers.

[61] Satadru Sen. 2015. “ Fascism without Fascists? A Comparative Look at Hindutva and Zionism.” South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 38, no. 1 ( October): 690– 711.

[62] Ornit Shani. 2007. Communalism, Caste and Hindu Nationalism: The Violence in Gujarat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[63] Jyotirmaya Sharma. 2011. Hindutva: Exploring the Idea of Hindu Nationalism. New Delhi: Penguin Books.

[64] Kanwal Sibal. 2020. “ It is Hinduphobia to Accuse India of Islamophobia. ” May 8. http://www.newageislam.com/islam-and-politics/kanwal-sibal/it-is-hinduphobiato-accuse-india-of-islamophobia/d/121791. Accessed August 20, 2021.

[65] Ujjwal Kumar Singh. 2006. “ The Silent Erosion: Anti-Terror Laws and Shifting Contours of Jurisprudence in India.” Diogenes, 212: 116– 33.

[66] Ujjwal Kumar Singh. 2012. “ Mapping Anti-Terror Legal Regimes in India.” In Global Anti-Terrorism Law and Policy, edited by Victor V. RamrajMichael HorKent RoachGeorge William, 420– 46. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[67] Mohammed Sinan SiyechAkanksha Narain. 2018. “ Beef-Related Violence in India: An Expression of Islamophobia.” Islamophobia Studies Journal, 4, no. 1 (Spring): 181– 94.

[68] Lisa Stampnitzky. 2013. Disciplining Terror: How Experts Invented “Terrorism.” London: Cambridge University Press.

[69] Shabnum Tejani. 2007. Indian Secularism: A Social and Intellectual History 1890–1950. New Delhi: Permanent Black.

[70] Anand Teltumbde. 2020. “ Introduction to the Revised Edition.” In Hindutva and Dalits Perspectives for Understanding Communal Praxis, edited by Anand Teltumbde, xiii– lx. New Delhi: Sage.

[71] David Tyrer. 2013. The Politics of Islamophobia: Race, Power and Fantasy. London: Pluto Press.

[72] Sanober Umar. 2019. “ Constructing the ‘ Citizen Enemy’: The Impact of the Enemy Property Act of 1968 on India’s Muslims.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 39, no. 1 ( November): 457– 77.

[73] Surya Prakash UpadhyayRowena Robinson. 2012. “ Revisiting Communalism and Fundamentalism in India.” Economic and Political Weekly, 47, no. 1 ( September): 35– 57.

[74] Ather Zia. 2018. “ The Killable Kashmiri Body: The Life and Execution of Afzal Guru.” In Resisting Occupation in Kashmir, edited by H. DuschinskiM. BhanA. ZiaC. Mahmood, 103– 28. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

[75] Ather Zia. 2019. Resisting Disappearance: Military Occupation and Women’s Activism in Kashmir. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

[76] Reza Zia-Ebrahimi. 2020. “ The French Origins of ‘Islamophobia Denial’.” Patterns of Prejudice, 54, no. 1 ( March): 315– 46.

[77] Jasmine Zine. 2006. “ Unveiled Sentiments: Gendered Islamophobia and Experiences of Veiling among Muslim Girls in a Canadian Islamic School.” Equity and Excellence in Education, 39, no. 1 ( November): 239– 52.

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