Police culture and gender: an evaluation of police officers&apos; practices and responses to domestic abuse

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Volume 8, Issue 1

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Police culture and gender: an evaluation of police officers' practices and responses to domestic abuse

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Author(s): Deisy Carrillo

Publication date (Print): 1 May 2021

Journal: Journal of Global Faultlines

Publisher: Pluto Journals

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Abstract

This research reviews police officers' practices and responses to domestic abuse, which since the mid-1980s has been a central topic of debate amongst scholars, campaigners and policymakers. The last four decades have seen a growing body of research and government inquiries that focus specifically on officers' procedures and perception of gender-based crimes, such as domestic abuse. Nevertheless, many questions remain unanswered, or at least contested, including the extent to which police officers can influence how domestic abuse incidents are reported and recorded. In this context, studies in the field have revealed that many different factors can impact officers' behaviours, including lack of knowledge of the dynamics of the crime, misogynistic views, cultural beliefs and gender stereotypes, which are deep-rooted in social norms. These attitudes and traditional gender views are extremely concerning when they are held by some male officers, as males are over-represented in the police force and they play a pivotal role in the fight against domestic abuse.

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Deisy Carrillo

Journal

Journal ID (doi): 10.2307/j50018794

Journal ID (jcode): jglobfaul

Title: Journal of Global Faultlines

Publisher: Pluto Journals

ISSN: 2397-7825

ISSN: 2054-2089

Publication date (Print): 1 May 2021

Volume: 8

Issue: 1 ( doiID: 10.13169/jglobfaul.8.issue-1 )

Pages: 69-80

Affiliations

Deisy Carrillo has a Diploma of Higher Education in Social Sciences and a BA (Hons) Degree in Criminology with Criminal Justice from the University of West London (UWL). She has a particular interest in the field of domestic abuse and social inequality. She has taken on volunteer roles as a Community Support Advisor with Hestia. Currently she is working with London Policing College as a researcher and communication officer. deisy.carrillo@ 123456lonpolcol.co.uk

Article

Publisher ID: jglobfaul.8.1.0069

DOI: 10.13169/jglobfaul.8.1.0069

SO-VID: d9b86a86-de32-4608-af64-d0ef16b53a49

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All content is freely available without charge to users or their institutions. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission of the publisher or the author. Articles published in the journal are distributed under a http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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ScienceOpen disciplines: Social & Behavioral Sciences

References

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Brown, J. (2007) ‘From Cult of Masculinity to Smart Macho: Gender Perspectives Occupational Culture’. In M. O'Neill, A. Singh and M. Marks, eds, Police Occupational Culture: New Debates and Directions. Oxford: Elsevier.
Buzawa, E. S. and Buzawa, C. G. (1996) Domestic Violence: The Criminal Justice Response. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. 2nd Edition.
Buzawa E. S. and Buzawa C. G. (2017) ‘The Evolution of the Response to Domestic Violence in the United States’. In E. Buzawa and C. Buzawa, eds, Global Responses to Domestic Violence. Cham: Springer. DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56721-1_4 (Accessed: 19 January 2021).
Chambers, G. and Miller, A. (1983) Investigating Sexual Assault, Scottish Office Research Study, Edinburgh: HMSO.
Connell, R. (2009). Gender. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Dempsey, K. (2002) Who gets the best deal from marriage: women or men. Journal of Sociology, 38(2), pp. 91–110.
Dick, P. and Cassell, C. (2004) The position of policewomen: a discourse analytic study. Work, Employment and Society, 18(1), pp. 51–72. DOI: 10.1177/0950017004040762. (Accessed: 19 January 2021).
Dick, P., Silvestri, M. and Westmarland, L. (2014) ‘Women Police: Potential and Possibilities for Police Reform’. In J. Brown, ed., The Future of Policing. London: Routledge.
Dobash, R. and Dobash, R. (1980) Violence Against Wives. London: Open Books.
Dobash, R. and Dobash, R. (2004) Women's violence in intimate relationships: working on a puzzle. British Journal of Criminology, 44(3), pp. 324–349. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azh026 (Accessed: 15 January 2021).
Dobash, R. and Dobash, R. (2015) When Men Murder Women. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Edwards, S. (1986) Police attitudes and dispositions in domestic disputes: The London Study, Police Journal. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0032258X8605900308 (Accessed: 18 January 2021).
European Commission (2016) Istanbul Convention: Combatting violence against women fact sheet. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/files/gender_based_violence/160316_factsheet_istanbul_convention_en.pdf (Accessed 18 January 2021).
Golding, J. (1999) Intimate partner violence as a risk factor for mental disorders: a meta-analysis. J Fam Violence, 14, pp. 99–132.
Goodmark, L. (2016) Hands Up at Home: Militarized Masculinity and Police Officers Who Commit Intimate Partner Abuse. Available at: https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/lawre-view/vol2015/iss5/5 (Accessed: 10 February 2021).
Gover, A., Paul, D. and Dodge, M. (2011) Law enforcement officers' attitudes about domestic violence. Violence Against Women, 17(5), pp. 619–636. DOI: 10.1177/1077801211407477 (Accessed: 15 January 2021).
Gracia, E. (2014) Intimate partner violence against women and victim-blaming attitudes among Europeans. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, 92(5), pp. 381–381. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262002607_Intimate_partner_violence_against_women_and_victim-blaming_attitudes_among_Europeans (Accessed: 10 January 2021).
Gregory, J. and Lees, S. (1999) Policing Sexual Assault. London: Routledge.
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Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services (HMICFRS) (2017) A progress report on the police response to domestic abuse. Available at: https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmicfrs/wp-content/uploads/progress-report-on-the-police-response-to-domestic-abuse.pdf (Accessed: 19 January 2021).
Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services (HMICFRS) (2019) The police response to domestic abuse: An update report. Available at: https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmicfrs/wp-content/uploads/the-police-response-to-domestic-abuse-an-update-report.pdf (Accessed: 11 January 2021).
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Hoyle, C. (1998) Negotiating Domestic Violence: Police, Criminal Justice and Victims. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Home Office (2019) The Eeconomic and Social Costs of Domestic Abuse. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/772180/horr107.pdf (Accessed: 11 January 2021).
Kelmendi, K. (2015). Domestic violence against women in Kosovo. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(4), pp. 680–702. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514535255 (Accessed: 20 January 2021).
Klockars, C. B. (1985) The Idea of Police. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Lima, G. and Werlang, B. (2011). Women who suffer domestic violence: Contributions of psychoanalysis. Psicologia em Estudo, 16(4), pp. 511–520. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1590/s1413-73722011000400002 (Accessed: 20 January 2021).
MacVean, A. and Neyroud, P (2012) Police Ethics and Values. London: Learning Matters.
McLaughlin, E. (2007) The New Policing. London: Sage, p. 51.
Monckton-Smith, J., Williams, A. and Mullane, F. (2014) Domestic Abuse, Homicide and Gender. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Muncie, J. (2015). Student Handbook of Criminal Justice and Criminology. London: Routledge-Cavendish. 1st Edition.
Myhill, A. (2017) Measuring domestic violence: Context is everything. Journal of Gender-based Violence, 1(1): pp. 33–44.
Myhill, A. (2016) Risk Identification in Cases of Domestic Abuse. Ryton-on-Dunsmore: College of Policing.
Office for National Statistics (2019) Domestic abuse in England and Wales: Year ending March 2019. Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/domesticabusevictimcharacteristicsenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2020 (Accessed: 20 January 2021).
Perez-Testor, C., Castillo, J., Davins, M., Salamero, M. and San-Martino, M. (2007) Personality profiles in a group of battered women: Clinical and care implications. Journal of Family Violence, 22(2), pp. 73–80. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-006-9057-8 (Accessed: 25 January 2021).
Perez-Vincent, S. M. and E. Carreras. (2020) Evidence from a Domestic Violence Hotline in Argentina. Chapter 1, Inter-American Development Bank Technical Note Nº IDB-TN-1956.
Pico-Alfonso, M., Echeburua, E. and Martinez, M. (2008) Personality disorder symptoms in women as a result of chronic intimate male partner violence. Journal of Family Violence, 23(7), pp. 577–588. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-008-9180-9 (Accessed: 20 January 2021).
Reiner, R. (1996) Policing. London: Oxford University Press.
Reiner, R. (2010) The Politics of the Police. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Robinson, A., Myhill, A., Wire, J., Roberts, J. and Tilley, N. (2016) Risk-led Policing of Domestic Abuse and the DASH Risk Model. Cardiff and London: What Works Centre, Crime Reduction Research; Cardiff University, College of Policing and UCL Department of Security and Crime Science.
SafeLives (2015) Getting it right first time: Policy report. Available at: http://safelives.org.uk/sites/default/files/resources/Getting%20it%20right%20first%20time%20-%20complete%20report.pdf (Accessed: 12 January 2021).
Sharma, A. and Borah, S. B. (2020) COVID-19 and domestic violence: An indirect path to social and economic crisis. J Fam Viol. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020-00188-8 (Accessed: 15 January 2021).
Shoman, H., Karafillakis, E. and Rawaf, S. (2017) The link between the West African Ebola outbreak and health systems in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone: A systematic review. Globalisation and health, 13(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-016-0224-2
Silvestri, M. (2015) Gender Diversity: A Hop, Skip and a Jump Forwards and Back. Policing: A Journal of Policy & Practice, 9(1), pp. 56–64.
Smith, F. (1989) Domestic Violence. Home Office Research Study 107. London. HMSO.
Stanko, E. (1985) Intimate Intrusions. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1st Edition.
Stark, E. (2007) Coercive Control: How Men Entrap Women in Personal Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Stark, E. (2012). Looking beyond domestic violence: Policing coercive control. Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations, 12: 199–217.
Strickland, P. and Allen, G. (2018) Domestic violence in England and Wales. Available at: http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN06337/SN06337.pdf (Accessed: 13 January 2021).
The London Policing College. (2020a) Supt May-Britt V R Ronnebro Crime Development During the Covid 19 Pandemic Worldwide. 8 December. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k6zCQfiVAQ8&list=PL8VsxSEBffCWS_S7JWJk_Qxd8F92WhZj_&index=8 (Accessed: 10 February 2021).
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Trice, H. M. and Beyer, J. M. (1993) The Cultures of Work Organisations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
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Walker, L. and Browne, A. (1985). Gender and victimisation by intimates. Journal of Personality, 53(2), pp. 179–195. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1985.tb00363.x (Accessed: 20 January 2021).
Women's Aid. (2020) A perfect storm: the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on domestic abuse survivors and the services supporting them. Bristol: Women's Aid.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2010) Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action and generating evidence. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/44350/9789241?sequence=1 (Accessed: 5 January 2021).

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Barnett, O., Miller-Perrin, L. and Perrin, D. (2005) Family Violence Across the Lifespan: An Introduction, London: Sage. 2nd Edition.

[2] Brown, J. (2007) ‘From Cult of Masculinity to Smart Macho: Gender Perspectives Occupational Culture’. In M. O'Neill, A. Singh and M. Marks, eds, Police Occupational Culture: New Debates and Directions. Oxford: Elsevier.

[3] Buzawa, E. S. and Buzawa, C. G. (1996) Domestic Violence: The Criminal Justice Response. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. 2nd Edition.

[4] Buzawa E. S. and Buzawa C. G. (2017) ‘The Evolution of the Response to Domestic Violence in the United States’. In E. Buzawa and C. Buzawa, eds, Global Responses to Domestic Violence. Cham: Springer. DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56721-1_4 (Accessed: 19 January 2021).

[5] Chambers, G. and Miller, A. (1983) Investigating Sexual Assault, Scottish Office Research Study, Edinburgh: HMSO.

[6] Connell, R. (2009). Gender. Cambridge: Polity Press.

[7] Dempsey, K. (2002) Who gets the best deal from marriage: women or men. Journal of Sociology, 38(2), pp. 91–110.

[8] Dick, P. and Cassell, C. (2004) The position of policewomen: a discourse analytic study. Work, Employment and Society, 18(1), pp. 51–72. DOI: 10.1177/0950017004040762. (Accessed: 19 January 2021).

[9] Dick, P., Silvestri, M. and Westmarland, L. (2014) ‘Women Police: Potential and Possibilities for Police Reform’. In J. Brown, ed., The Future of Policing. London: Routledge.

[10] Dobash, R. and Dobash, R. (1980) Violence Against Wives. London: Open Books.

[11] Dobash, R. and Dobash, R. (2004) Women's violence in intimate relationships: working on a puzzle. British Journal of Criminology, 44(3), pp. 324–349. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azh026 (Accessed: 15 January 2021).

[12] Dobash, R. and Dobash, R. (2015) When Men Murder Women. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[13] Edwards, S. (1986) Police attitudes and dispositions in domestic disputes: The London Study, Police Journal. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0032258X8605900308 (Accessed: 18 January 2021).

[14] European Commission (2016) Istanbul Convention: Combatting violence against women fact sheet. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/files/gender_based_violence/160316_factsheet_istanbul_convention_en.pdf (Accessed 18 January 2021).

[15] Golding, J. (1999) Intimate partner violence as a risk factor for mental disorders: a meta-analysis. J Fam Violence, 14, pp. 99–132.

[16] Goodmark, L. (2016) Hands Up at Home: Militarized Masculinity and Police Officers Who Commit Intimate Partner Abuse. Available at: https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/lawre-view/vol2015/iss5/5 (Accessed: 10 February 2021).

[17] Gover, A., Paul, D. and Dodge, M. (2011) Law enforcement officers' attitudes about domestic violence. Violence Against Women, 17(5), pp. 619–636. DOI: 10.1177/1077801211407477 (Accessed: 15 January 2021).

[18] Gracia, E. (2014) Intimate partner violence against women and victim-blaming attitudes among Europeans. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, 92(5), pp. 381–381. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262002607_Intimate_partner_violence_against_women_and_victim-blaming_attitudes_among_Europeans (Accessed: 10 January 2021).

[19] Gregory, J. and Lees, S. (1999) Policing Sexual Assault. London: Routledge.

[20] Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary (HMIC) (2014) Everyone's business: Improving the police response to domestic abuse. Available at: https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmicfrs/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/improving-the-police-response-to-domestic-abuse.pdf (Accessed: 11 January 2021).

[21] Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services (HMICFRS) (2017) A progress report on the police response to domestic abuse. Available at: https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmicfrs/wp-content/uploads/progress-report-on-the-police-response-to-domestic-abuse.pdf (Accessed: 19 January 2021).

[22] Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services (HMICFRS) (2019) The police response to domestic abuse: An update report. Available at: https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmicfrs/wp-content/uploads/the-police-response-to-domestic-abuse-an-update-report.pdf (Accessed: 11 January 2021).

[23] Hestia (2020) Bright Sky. Available at: https://www.hestia.org/brightsky (Accessed: 12 February 2021).

[24] HM Government (2016) Ending Violence against Women and Girls Strategy 2016–2020. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/522166/VAWG_Strategy_FINAL_PUBLICATION_MASTER_vRB.PDF (Accessed: 22 January 2019).

[25] HM Government (2018) Transforming the response to domestic abuse: Government consultation. Available at: https://consult.justice.gov.uk/homeoffice-moj/domestic-abuse-consultation/supporting_documents/Transforming%20the%20response%20to%20domestic%20abuse.pdf (Accessed: 17 January 2021).

[26] Hoyle, C. (1998) Negotiating Domestic Violence: Police, Criminal Justice and Victims. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[27] Home Office (2019) The Eeconomic and Social Costs of Domestic Abuse. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/772180/horr107.pdf (Accessed: 11 January 2021).

[28] Kelmendi, K. (2015). Domestic violence against women in Kosovo. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(4), pp. 680–702. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514535255 (Accessed: 20 January 2021).

[29] Klockars, C. B. (1985) The Idea of Police. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

[30] Lima, G. and Werlang, B. (2011). Women who suffer domestic violence: Contributions of psychoanalysis. Psicologia em Estudo, 16(4), pp. 511–520. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1590/s1413-73722011000400002 (Accessed: 20 January 2021).

[31] MacVean, A. and Neyroud, P (2012) Police Ethics and Values. London: Learning Matters.

[32] McLaughlin, E. (2007) The New Policing. London: Sage, p. 51.

[33] Monckton-Smith, J., Williams, A. and Mullane, F. (2014) Domestic Abuse, Homicide and Gender. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

[34] Muncie, J. (2015). Student Handbook of Criminal Justice and Criminology. London: Routledge-Cavendish. 1st Edition.

[35] Myhill, A. (2017) Measuring domestic violence: Context is everything. Journal of Gender-based Violence, 1(1): pp. 33–44.

[36] Myhill, A. (2016) Risk Identification in Cases of Domestic Abuse. Ryton-on-Dunsmore: College of Policing.

[37] Office for National Statistics (2019) Domestic abuse in England and Wales: Year ending March 2019. Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/domesticabusevictimcharacteristicsenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2020 (Accessed: 20 January 2021).

[38] Perez-Testor, C., Castillo, J., Davins, M., Salamero, M. and San-Martino, M. (2007) Personality profiles in a group of battered women: Clinical and care implications. Journal of Family Violence, 22(2), pp. 73–80. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-006-9057-8 (Accessed: 25 January 2021).

[39] Perez-Vincent, S. M. and E. Carreras. (2020) Evidence from a Domestic Violence Hotline in Argentina. Chapter 1, Inter-American Development Bank Technical Note Nº IDB-TN-1956.

[40] Pico-Alfonso, M., Echeburua, E. and Martinez, M. (2008) Personality disorder symptoms in women as a result of chronic intimate male partner violence. Journal of Family Violence, 23(7), pp. 577–588. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-008-9180-9 (Accessed: 20 January 2021).

[41] Reiner, R. (1996) Policing. London: Oxford University Press.

[42] Reiner, R. (2010) The Politics of the Police. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[43] Robinson, A., Myhill, A., Wire, J., Roberts, J. and Tilley, N. (2016) Risk-led Policing of Domestic Abuse and the DASH Risk Model. Cardiff and London: What Works Centre, Crime Reduction Research; Cardiff University, College of Policing and UCL Department of Security and Crime Science.

[44] SafeLives (2015) Getting it right first time: Policy report. Available at: http://safelives.org.uk/sites/default/files/resources/Getting%20it%20right%20first%20time%20-%20complete%20report.pdf (Accessed: 12 January 2021).

[45] Sharma, A. and Borah, S. B. (2020) COVID-19 and domestic violence: An indirect path to social and economic crisis. J Fam Viol. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020-00188-8 (Accessed: 15 January 2021).

[46] Shoman, H., Karafillakis, E. and Rawaf, S. (2017) The link between the West African Ebola outbreak and health systems in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone: A systematic review. Globalisation and health, 13(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-016-0224-2

[47] Silvestri, M. (2015) Gender Diversity: A Hop, Skip and a Jump Forwards and Back. Policing: A Journal of Policy & Practice, 9(1), pp. 56–64.

[48] Smith, F. (1989) Domestic Violence. Home Office Research Study 107. London. HMSO.

[49] Stanko, E. (1985) Intimate Intrusions. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1st Edition.

[50] Stark, E. (2007) Coercive Control: How Men Entrap Women in Personal Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[51] Stark, E. (2012). Looking beyond domestic violence: Policing coercive control. Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations, 12: 199–217.

[52] Strickland, P. and Allen, G. (2018) Domestic violence in England and Wales. Available at: http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN06337/SN06337.pdf (Accessed: 13 January 2021).

[53] The London Policing College. (2020a) Supt May-Britt V R Ronnebro Crime Development During the Covid 19 Pandemic Worldwide. 8 December. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k6zCQfiVAQ8&list=PL8VsxSEBffCWS_S7JWJk_Qxd8F92WhZj_&index=8 (Accessed: 10 February 2021).

[54] The London Policing College. (2020b) Martin Hewitt QPM Coronavirus Crisis 2020 The National Policing Respond. 8 December. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JqRPa5IofYE&list=PL8VsxSEBffCWS_S7JWJk_Qxd8F92WhZj_&index=3 (Accessed: 10 February 2021).

[55] Townsend, M. (2020) Revealed: Surge in domestic violence during Covid-19 crisis. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/apr/12/domestic-violence-surges-seven-hundred-per-cent-uk-coronavirus (Accessed: 17 January 2021).

[56] Trice, H. M. and Beyer, J. M. (1993) The Cultures of Work Organisations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

[57] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2018) Global study on homicide: Gender-related killing of women and girls. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/GSH2018/GSH18_Gender-related_killing_of_women_and_girls.pdf (Accessed: 10 January 2021).

[58] Walker, L. and Browne, A. (1985). Gender and victimisation by intimates. Journal of Personality, 53(2), pp. 179–195. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1985.tb00363.x (Accessed: 20 January 2021).

[59] Women's Aid. (2020) A perfect storm: the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on domestic abuse survivors and the services supporting them. Bristol: Women's Aid.

[60] World Health Organization (WHO) (2010) Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: Taking action and generating evidence. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/44350/9789241?sequence=1 (Accessed: 5 January 2021).