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      Transgender Law in Pakistan: Some Key Issues

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            Abstract

            The International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) has recently issued a Briefing Paper regarding the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2018 of Pakistan. Stating the passage of this Act a crucial progress, ICJ suggests that this enactment was made under an international law obligations of Pakistan. This paper, while not agreeing with this observation, argues that this law has been promulgated on misrepresented interpretation of the international law as presented in the ICJ Briefing Paper as well. Additionally, it undermines the rights of the indigenous gender-variant people of Pakistan as well as the legal and social framework of the country. The law is more aligned to the global movement of the lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans (LGBT) communities and contains serious definitional and conceptual flaws. This study suggests working out a scheme for mainstreaming gender-variant persons on the basis of the Constitution of Pakistan, guidelines of the Supreme Court of Pakistan and the recognized principles of international law. This would require a thorough review of the current law with a changed approach and reference point.

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            Author and article information

            Contributors
            Journal
            10.2307/j50009730
            polipers
            Policy Perspectives
            Pluto Journals
            1812-1829
            1812-7347
            1 January 2020
            : 17
            : 1 ( doiID: 10.13169/polipers.17.issue-1 )
            : 7-33
            Affiliations
            Senior Research Officer, Institute of Policy Studies, Islamabad, Pakistan
            Student, Department of Government & Public Policy, National Defence University, Islamabad, Pakistan
            PhD; Assistant Professor, Department of Government & Public Policy, National Defence University Islamabad, Pakistan
            M Phil Scholar, Public Policy; Research Assistant, Riphah Institute of Public Policy, Riphah International University (RIU), Islamabad, Pakistan
            Article
            polipers.17.1.0007
            10.13169/polipers.17.1.0007
            2d73ce9c-b752-4edf-8d0b-eafa4008b06c
            © 2020, Institute of Policy Studies

            All content is freely available without charge to users or their institutions. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission of the publisher or the author. Articles published in the journal are distributed under a http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

            History
            Custom metadata
            eng

            Education,Religious studies & Theology,Social & Behavioral Sciences,Law,Economics
            Intersex,Pakistan,Islam,Transgender,International Law

            Footnotes

            1. International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) was established in 1952 and introduces itself as a group of '60 eminent judges and lawyers from all regions of the world.' The organization holds a consultative status with the 'United Nations Economic and Social Council,' the 'United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,' the 'Council of Europe,' and 'African Union.'

            2. ICJ, “The ICJ Releases Briefing Paper on Pakistan's Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018” (Geneva: International Commission of Jurists, 2020), https://www.icj.org/the-icj-releases-briefing-paper-on-pakistans-transgender-persons-protection-of-rights-act-2018/.

            3. The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2018, Act No. XIII (2018).

            4. ICJ, “Pakistan: Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018, A Briefing Paper” (paper, International Commission of Jurists, Geneva, 2020), 1, https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Pakistan-Transgender-Advocacy-Analysis-brief-2020-ENG.pdf.

            5. ICJ, “Themes” (Geneva: International Commission of Jurists, n.d.), accessed May 30, 2020, https://www.icj.org/themes/. Other themes of ICJ include, ‘Independence of judges and lawyers; Country profiles; Geneva Forum; International standards; Accountability; Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; Business and human rights; Initiative in grievance mechanisms; United Nations programme; Women's human rights; Global security and rule of law.‘

            6. Jeffrey A Redding, “The Pakistan Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2018 and its Impact on the Law of Gender in Pakistan,” Australian Journal of Asian Law 20, no. 1 (2019): 1-11.

            7. ICJ, “Pakistan: Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018, A Briefing Paper,” 2.

            8. “The Yogyakarta Principles: Principles on the Application of International Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity,” Yogyakartaprinciples.org, 2007, http://yogyakartaprinciples.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/principles_en.pdf; and “The Yogyakarta Principles Plus 10: Additional Principles and State Obligations on the Application of International Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, Gender Expression and Sex Characteristics to Complement the Yogyakarta Principles,” Yogyakartaprinciples.org, 2017, http://yogyakartaprinciples.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/A5_yogyakartaWEB-2.pdf.

            9. ICJ, Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and International Human Rights Law: Practitioners' Guide No. 4 (Geneva: International Commission of Jurists, 2009), https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/sexual-orientation-international-law-Practitioners-Guide-2009-eng.pdf.

            10. “The Yogyakarta Principles: Principles on the Application of International Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity,” Yogyakartaprinciples.org; “The Yogyakarta Principles Plus 10: Additional Principles and State Obligations on the Application of International Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, Gender Expression and Sex Characteristics to Complement the Yogyakarta Principles,” Yogyakartaprinciples.org; and ICJ, “Pakistan: Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018, A Briefing Paper.” With respect to Pakistan, it is important to note that late Ms Asma Jahangir, the then Chairperson of the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP) was among the 29 individuals who were signatories of Yogyakarta Principles, while Ms Hina Jilani from Pakistan is part of the Executive Committee of the ICJ at the time of release of the ICJ Briefing Paper on Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights Act) 2018.

            11. See the discussion ahead and Shahnaz Khan, “What is in a Name? Khwaja Sara, Hijra and Eunuchs in Pakistan,” Indian Journal of Gender Studies 23, no. 2 (2016): 218-242, https://doi.org/10.1177/0971521516635327. The phrase ‘Gender-variant’ has been used in this paper as an umbrella term instead of transgender to include the variety of individuals without giving them any particular connotation. This is because the paper suggests that intersex persons are not the part of the term transgender as was proposed in the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018.

            12. “Transgender Community Slams Almas Bobby's ‘True Khawajasira’ Comment,” Pakistan Today, June 19, 2018, https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/06/19/transgender-community-slams-almas-bobbys-true-khawajasira-comment/.

            13. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan of 1973, Art. 3 (1973).

            14. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan of 1973, Art. 4 (1973).

            15. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan of 1973, Art. 25 (2) (1973).

            16. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan of 1973, Art. 8 (1973).

            17. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan of 1973, Art. 2 (1973).

            18. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan of 1973, Art. 227 (1973).

            19. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan of 1973, Art. 37 (1973).

            20. Ibid.

            21. Ibid.

            22. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan of 1973, Art. 38 (1973).

            23. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan of 1973, Art. 31 (2) b (1973).

            24. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan of 1973, Art. 34 (1973).

            25. Muhammad Aslam Khaki and another v. S.S.P (Operations) Rawalpindi and Others, [2009] Const. Pet. No. 43, SC (Pak.).

            26. Saud Bin Ahsen, “Rights of Transgenders in Pakistan,” Global Village Space, October 7, 2019, https://www.globalvillagespace.com/rights-of-transgenders-in-pakistan/; Ayesha Umar, “Assessing Social Inclusion through Transgender Legal Reforms in Pakistan” (paper, York University, Toronto, 2018), http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3433495.

            27. Jeffery A Redding, From ‘She-malse’ to ‘Unix’: Transgender Rights and the Productive Paradoxes of Pakistani Policing, in Regimes of Legality, Ethnography of Criminal Cases in South Asia, eds, Daniela Berti, Devika Bordia (New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2015), 258-289, DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199456741. 003.0009. Redding has attempted at understanding the usage of different terms during the proceedings of the 2009 case in the Supreme Court of Pakistan, from shemale, to eunuch and unix. Based on ‘micro-level cultural/contextual’ and 'micro-level institutional jurisdictional approach,' he suggests that the term unix might have been used by the apex court of Pakistan for being 'less-gendered, more generic identifier of the transgendered individuals.'

            28. Iram Batool, Muhammad Saqib and Abdul Sattar Ghaffari, “Attitude towards Third Gender: A Case Study of Southern Punjab, Pakistan,” Pakistan Journal of Applied Social Sciences 9 (2019): 19-36 (20).

            29. Ibid.

            30. Ibid., 23.

            31. UNAIDS, “Country - Pakistan,” factsheet, 2018, https://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/pakistan.

            32. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, GoP, “Provisional Province Wise Population by Sex and Rural/Urban Census - 2017 Pakistan” (Government of Pakistan, 2017), http://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf.

            33. Muhammad Aslam Khaki and another v. S.S.P (Operations) Rawalpindi and Others.

            34. Khan, “What is in a Name? Khwaja Sara, Hijra and Eunuchs in Pakistan.” Each of the terms used to denote gender-variant people collectively or distinctly is contested in literature. We have therefore used the most prevalent expressions.

            35. Qaiser Abaas, Ghiasuddin Pir, “History of the Invisible: A People's History of the Transgendered Community in Lahore,” THAAP Journal (2016): 162-175; Humaira Jami, “Condition and Status of Hijras (Transgender, Transvestites etc.) in Pakistan” (paper, National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad, 2016), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294427308.

            36. J Jami, “Condition and Status of Hijras (Transgender, Transvestites etc.) in Pakistan,” 9.

            37. Uzma Yaqoob, Bushra Rani, Tanzil ur Rehman, Muhammad Moiz, Muhammad Osama, Qasim Iqbal, Silent No More: Transgender Community in Pakistan, report (Islamabad: Aurat Foundation, 2016), http://af.org.pk/gep/images/GEP%20Gender%20Studies/Transgender%20Community%20in%20Pakistan.pdf.

            38. Jamil Ahmad Chitrali, “Sexuality and Gender in Conflict: Residential Patterns of Eunuchs in Pakistan” (paper, Institute of Archaeology & Anthropology, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, 2014), 7, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259006576_SEXUALITY_AND_GENDER_IN_CONFLICT_RESIDENTIAL_PATTERNS_OF_EUNUCHS_HIJRA_IN_PAKISTAN.

            39. Faris Ahmed Khan, “Khwaja Sira: Culture, Identity Politics, and ‘Transgender’ Activism in Pakistan” (PhD diss., Department of Anthropology, Syracuse University, New York, 2014), 372, https://surface.syr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1056&context=etd.

            40. Chitrali, “Sexuality and Gender in Conflict: Residential Patterns of Eunuchs in Pakistan.”

            41. Naila Nazir and Aqsa Yasir, “Education, Employability and Shift of Occupation of Transgender in Pakistan: A Case Study of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,” The Dialogue XI, no. 2 (2016): 159-176, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320876676_Education_Employability_and_Shift_of_Occupation_of_Transgender_in_Pakistan_A_Case_Study_of_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa.

            42. Batool, Saqib and Ghaffari, “Attitude towards Third Gender: A Case Study of Southern Punjab, Pakistan,” 23.

            43. Ibid.

            44. The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2018, Sec. 2(1)(n) (2018).

            45. ICJ, “Pakistan: Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018, A Briefing Paper,” 7.

            46. Redding, “The Pakistan Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2018 and its Impact on the Law of Gender in Pakistan,” 2.

            47. Ibid.

            48. ICJ, “Pakistan: Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018, A Briefing Paper,”2.

            49. United Nations, “Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 2,” accessed May 30, 2020, https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/index.html.

            50. Introduction to “The Yogyakarta Principles: Principles on the Application of International Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity,” Yogyakartaprinciples.org.

            51. “The Yogyakarta Principles: Principles on the Application of International Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity,” Yogyakartaprinciples.org; and “The Yogyakarta Principles Plus 10: Additional Principles and State Obligations on the Application of International Human Rights Law in Relation to Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, Gender Expression and Sex Characteristics to Complement the Yogyakarta Principles,” Yogyakartaprinciples.org.

            52. ICJ, “Pakistan: Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018, A Briefing Paper.”

            53. United Nations General Assembly, A/C.3/65/SR.29, “Summary Record of the 29th Meeting,” December 13, 2010, https://www.undocs.org/A/C.3/65/SR.29.

            54. Ibid.

            55. Ibid.

            56. Ibid.

            57. Ibid.

            58. Piero A Tozzi, “Six Problems with the ‘Yogyakarta Principles‘” (paper, International Organizations Research Group, Catholic Family & Human Rights Institute, New York, 2007), http://ssrn.com/abstract=1551652.

            59. Ratna Kapur, “The (Im) possibility of Queering International Human Rights Law,” Queering International Law: Possibilities, Alliances, Complicities, Risks, ed. Dianne Otto (London: Routledge, 2017), 131.

            60. For a detailed discussion on contemporary approach and conduct of Muslim nations towards evolving human rights, see Ahmed Ali Sawad, “Reservations to Human Rights Treaties and the Diversity Paradigm: Examining Islamic Reservations” (PhD diss., University of Otago, New Zealand, 2008), https://ourarchive.otago.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10523/1692/SawadAhmedA2011PhD.pdf;sequence=3.

            61. United Nations General Assembly, A/63/635, “Letter dated 18 December 2008 from the Permanent Representatives of Argentina, Brazil, Croatia, France, Gabon, Japan, the Netherlands and Norway to the United Nations addressed to the President of the General Assembly,” December 22, 2008, http://www.hirschfeld-eddy-stiftung.de/fileadmin/images/dokumente/virtuelle_bibliothek/UN_document_63_635_Eng.pdf.

            62. United Nations General Assembly, A/63/663, “Note Verbale dated 19 December 2008 from the Permanent Mission of the Syrian Arab Republic to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General,” 26 December 2008, https://undocs.org/A/63/663.

            63. Wikipedia, s.v. “LGBT Rights at the United Nations,” accessed April 10, 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_rights_at_the_United_Nations.

            64. United Nations General Assembly, Human Rights Council, A/HRC/27/L.27/Rev.1, “Human rights, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity,” September 24, 2014, https://undocs.org/A/HRC/27/L.27/Rev.1.

            65. Adam Howard, “UN Passes Resolution on Behalf of LGBT Citizens Around the Globe,” MSNBC.com, October 15, 2014, http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/un-passes-resolution-behalf-lgbt-citizens-around-the-globe.

            66. Ban Ki-moon, “Equality for LGBT, Intersex People Will Benefit Everyone, Secretary-General Tells Global Conference, Stressing Need to Curb Bullying Violence, Tackle Bias,” SG/SM/17925-HR/5323 (speech, United Nations, July 13, 2016), https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/sgsm17925.doc.htm.

            67. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Council Establishes Mandate on Côte d'Ivoire, Adopts Protocol to Child Rights Treaty, Requests Study on Discrimination and Sexual Orientation,” press release, June 17, 2011.

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            69. Kapur, “The (Im) possibility of Queering International Human Rights Law,” Queering International Law: Possibilities, Alliances, Complicities, Risks, 131.

            70. GATE, Its Time for Reform: Trans* Health Issues in the International Classification of Diseases, report (Global Action for Trans* Equality, 2012), 7, https://globaltransaction.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/its-time-for-reform.pdf.

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            72. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Intersex Awareness Day - Wednesday 26 October: End Violence and Harmful Medical Practices on Intersex Children and Adults, UN and Regional Experts Urge,” press release, October 24, 2016, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20739&LangID=E.

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            82. Muhammad Aslam Khaki and another v. S.S.P (Operations) Rawalpindi and Others.

            83. ICJ, “Pakistan: Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018, A Briefing Paper,” 11.

            84. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Intersex Awareness Day - Wednesday 26 October: End Violence and Harmful Medical Practices on Intersex Children and Adults, UN and Regional Experts Urge.”

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            99. ICJ, “Pakistan: Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018, A Briefing Paper,”, 14.

            100. Ibid.

            101. Ibid.

            102. See Jami, “Condition and Status of Hijras (Transgender, Transvestites etc.) in Pakistan;” Khan, “Khwaja Sira: Culture, Identity Politics, and ‘Transgender’ Activism in Pakistan” Everett K. Rowson, “The Effeminates of Early Medina,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 111, no. 4 (1991): 671-693, DOI: 10.2307/603399; M. Alipour, “Islamic Shari'a Law, Neotraditionalist Muslim Scholars and Transgender Sex-Reassignment Surgery: A Case Study of Ayatollah Khomeini's and Sheikh al-Tantawi's Fatwas,” International Journal Of Transgenderism 18, no. 1 (2017): 91-103, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2016.1250239; Sayed Sikandar Shah Haneef, “Sex Reassignment in Islamic Law: The Dilemma of Tarnssexuals [Transsexuals],” International Journal of Business, Humanities and Technology 1, no. 1 (2011): 98-107, http://www.ijbhtnet.com/journals/Vol._1_No.1_July_2011/10.pdf; Rizwana Gul, Muhammad Naeem, “Inheritance Rights of Hermaphrodites/ Khuntha,” Acta Islamica 5, no. 2 (2017): 1-10; and Ahmad A. Nasr, “Eunuchs In Islamic Society,” review of Eunuchs and Sacred Boundaries in Islamic Society by Shaun Marmon, Sudanic Africa 12 (2001): 170-175, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25653365.

            103. United Nations General Assembly, Human Rights Council, A/HRC/27/L.27/Rev.1, “Human rights, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity.”

            104. Pakistan Penal Code of 1860, Sec. 377 (1860). The Code reads, “Unnatural offences: Whoever voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal, shall be punished with imprisonment for life, or with imprisonment of either description for a term which shall not be less than two years nor more than ten years, and shall also be liable to fine.Explanation: Penetration is sufficient to constitute the carnal intercourse necessary to the offence described in this section.”

            105. National Assembly of Pakistan, GoP, Assembly Debates (Government of Pakistan, 2018), http://na.gov.pk/uploads/documents/1527836225_810.pdf.

            106. National Assembly of Pakistan, GoP, “Acts of Parliament” (Government of Pakistan, n.d.), accessed April 10, 2020, http://na.gov.pk/en/acts-tenure.php?tenure_id=11.

            107. Heino F. L. Meyer-Bahlburg, “From Mental Disorder to Iatrogenic Hypogonadism: Dilemmas in Conceptualizing Gender Identity Variants as Psychiatric Conditions,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 39, no. 2 (2010): 461–476, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-009-9532-4.

            108. “Gender Dysphoria,” Psychology Today.

            109. “Schizophrenia: Diagnosis and Treatment” (Scottsdale: Mayo Clinic, n.d.), accessed April 10, 2020, https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/schizophrenia/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20354449.

            110. Michael I. Kourakos, Eugenia D. Vlachou, and Martha N. Kelesi, “Empathy in the Health Professions: An Ally in the Care of Patients with Chronic Diseases,” International Journal of Health Sciences & Research 8, no. 2 (2018): 233-240, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322992411_Empathy_in_the_Health_Professions_An_Ally_in_the_Care_of_Patients_with_Chronic_Diseases.

            111. Dreger, “‘Ambiguous Sex’ - or Ambivalent Medicine? Ethical Issues in the Treatment of Intersexuality.”

            112. Milton Diamond and H. Keith Sigmundson, “Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-Term Review and Clinical Implications,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 151, no. 3 (1997): 298-304, doi:10.1001/archpedi.1997.02170400084015.

            113. Dreger, “‘Ambiguous Sex’ - or Ambivalent Medicine? Ethical Issues in the Treatment of Intersexuality.” This theory, however, suggests that the gender identity of a child should be fixed at a very early stage and such identity has to be in consistent with child's anatomy for a “successful” gender identity.

            114. Eleonora Lamm, “Gender Identity and Reproductive Autonomy: Deconstructing Sex, Gender and Roles” (paper, Global Action for Trans* Equality, 2019), 9, https://gate.ngo/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Gender-Identity-and-Reproductive-Autonomy-GATE-2.pdf.

            115. Ibid.

            116. Lisa Littman, “Parent reports of adolescents and young adults perceived to show signs of a rapid onset of gender dysphoria,” PLOS ONE 14, no. 3 (2018): 1-44 (34), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202330.

            117. Jami, “Condition and Status of Hijras (Transgender, Transvestites etc.) in Pakistan,”, 8.

            118. Jessica Hinchy, Governing Gender and Sexuality in Colonial India: The Hijra, c.1850–1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 2.

            119. Omair Paul, “Evaluating the Effects of Possible Religious Incitement to Discrimination on the Human Capabilities of Khawaja Siras in Pakistan” (Masters diss., Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Columbia University, New York, 2018), 1, https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D81Z5N9S.

            120. Khan, “Khwaja Sira: Culture, Identity Politics, and ‘Transgender’ Activism in Pakistan.”

            121. ICJ, “Pakistan: Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018, A Briefing Paper,” 5.

            122. Ibid.

            123. Ahmed Ali Sawad, “Reservations to Human Rights Treaties and the Diversity Paradigm: Examining Islamic Reservations” (PhD diss., University of Otago, Dunedin, 2008), 383, https://ourarchive.otago.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10523/1692/SawadAhmedA2011PhD.pdf;sequence=3.

            124. United Nations General Assembly, A/C.3/65/SR.29, “Summary Record of the 29th Meeting.”

            125. ICJ, “Vision, Mission and Statutes” (Geneva: International Commission of Jurists, n.d.), accessed May 17, 2020, https://www.icj.org/about/vision-mission-and-statutes/.

            126. For example, see the Urdu column of Pakistan's top cleric, Mufi Muneeb-ur-Rahman, “Khwaja Sira'on kay Huqooq ke Tahuffuz ka Bill aur Muzmir Khatrat” [“Bill for Protection of Transgender Rights and Implicit Dangers”], Daily Jang, July 13, 2019 and July 15, 2019.

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