Caliphate as Transnational Metaphor: A Decolonial Analysis of Caliphate Struggles

If you have found this article useful and you think it is important that researchers across the world have access, please consider donating, to ensure that this valuable collection remains Open Access.

ReOrient is published by Pluto Journals, an Open Access publisher. This means that everyone has free and unlimited access to the full-text of all articles from our international collection of social science journals, and the authors don’t pay an author processing charge (APC’s).

scite_

ReOrient

Volume 6, Issue 2

Record: found
Abstract: found
Article: found

Is Open Access

Caliphate as Transnational Metaphor: A Decolonial Analysis of Caliphate Struggles

research-article

Author(s): Sheheen Kattiparambil

Publication date (Print): 1 April 2021

Journal: ReOrient

Publisher: Pluto Journals

Keywords: Caliphate, Critical Muslim Studies, Decolonial, Khilafat movement, Mappila

Bookmark

Abstract

Framed in a Critical Muslim Studies approach, this essay will present a decolonial reconceptualisation of the concept of the Caliphate by analysing the narratives on the Khilafat movement and the Mappila rebellion (1921-1922) in India and presenting them as decolonial disruptive movements. Traditional formulations of the Caliphate privilege a view from the centre (Arab world) and contemporary discussions focus on the ontic manifestations such as structure and the requirements for the office of the Caliph rather than the what the Caliphate means. By looking at contemporary framings of the caliphate mobilisations and its methodological shortcomings, this essay will theorise how the leaders of the Khilafat movement, Mappila ulema and leaders conceptualised the Caliphate based on an ontological understanding and their mobilisation of its range of possible meanings. The essay will also look at the appropriation of such meanings by Marxist ideologues and historians to lend legitimacy to the Marxist trajectory of violence and martyrdom, and the subsequent erasure of Muslim political subjectivity from these narratives by framing it using a class analytic. This essay will present a reading of the Caliphate mobilisations as way of decolonising the Islamicate past for ‘clearing the ground’ for dreaming a future.

Content

Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (doi): 10.2307/j50009694

Journal ID (jcode): reorient

Title: ReOrient

Publisher: Pluto Journals

ISSN: 2055-5601

ISSN: 2055-561X

Publication date (Print): 1 April 2021

Volume: 6

Issue: 2 ( doiID: 10.13169/reorient.6.issue-2 )

Pages: 173-201

Affiliations

Department of Sociology and Social Policy, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK Email id: pt16s2k@ 123456leeds.ac.uk

Article

Publisher ID: reorient.6.2.0173

DOI: 10.13169/reorient.6.2.0173

SO-VID: fe98aa29-6fca-4cfa-8433-e5d398de23da

License:

All content is freely available without charge to users or their institutions. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission of the publisher or the author. Articles published in the journal are distributed under a http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

History

Custom metadata

lang eng

ScienceOpen disciplines: Literary studies,Religious studies & Theology,Social & Behavioral Sciences,History,Philosophy

Keywords: Khilafat movement,Decolonial,Critical Muslim Studies,Mappila,Caliphate

Works Cited

Achebe, C. and Jaggi, M. (2001) Anthills of the Savannah. London: Penguin Modern Classics.
Ahmad, I. (2014) Gandhi, Palestine and Israel. https://kafila.online/2014/08/02/gandhi-palestine-and-israel-irfan-ahmad/.
Ali, M. M. (1930) Speech at the Fourth Plenary Session of the Round Table Conference in London. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_muhammadali_1930.html.
Ambedkar, B. (2013) Pakistan or the Partition of India. New Delhi: Samyak Publishers.
Anjum, O. (2019) Who wants the caliphate? Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/ovamiranjum/who-wants-the-caliphate (accessed 10 January 2020).
Ansari, M. T. (2016) Islam and Nationalism in India: South Indian Contexts. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
Ansari, M. T. (2005) Refiguring the fanatic: Malabar, 1836-1922. In S Mayaram, M. S. S. Pandyan and A. Skaria (eds.), Subaltern Studies. Delhi: Permanent Black and Ravi Dayal, XII, 36-77.
Ansari, S. F. D. (2003) Sufi Saints and State Power: The Pirs of Sind, 1843-1947. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Aydin, C. (2007) The Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia: Visions of World Order in Pan-Islamic and Pan-Asian Thought. New York: Columbia University Press, doi: 10.7312/aydi13778.
Aydin, C. (2016) Imperial paradoxes: A caliphate for subaltern Muslims. ReOrient. 1 (2), 171-91.
Aydin, C. (2017) The Idea of the Muslim World: A Global Intellectual History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Aziz, A. (1968) An eighteenth-century theory of the caliphate. Studia Islamica. 28, 135-44, doi: 10.2307/1595266.
Babbitt, S. E. (2001) Objectivity and the role of bias. Engendering Rationalities. 27, 297-314.
Bamford, P. C. (1974) Histories of the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movements. Delhi: Deep Publications.
Bar, S. (2016) The implications of the caliphate. Journal of Comparative Strategy. 35 (1), 1-14.
Bruinessen, van M. (1995) Muslims of the Dutch East Indies and the caliphate question. Studia Islamika. 2 (3), 115-40, doi: 10.15408/sdi.v2i3.829.
Bulliet, R. W. (1994) Islam: The View from the Edge. New York: Columbia University Press.
Carey, C., Quick, J., Quinn, J., Wallace, D. and Fry, J. (2004) Geonosis and the Outer Rim Worlds (Star Wars Roleplaying Game). Washington, DC: Wizards of the Coast.
Celso, A. (2016) More than the voice of the caliphate: The destructive legacy of Abu Muhammad Al-Adnani. International Journal of Political Science. 2 (4), 86-94, doi: 10.20431/2454-9452.0204009.
Crooke, A. (2009) Resistance: The Essence of the Islamist Revolution. London: Pluto Press.
Dale, S. (1980) Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Mappilas of Malabar, 1498-1922. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Devji, F. (2008) The Terrorist in Search of Humanity: Militant Islam and Global Politics. London: Hurst & Co.
Finkelstein, N. G. (2012) What Gandhi Says: About Nonviolence, Resistance and Courage. New York: OR Books, doi: 10.2307/j.ctt1bkm686..
Fowkes, B. and Gökay, B. (2009) Unholy alliance: Muslims and communists – an introduction. Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics. 25 (1), 1-31, doi: 10.1080/13523270802655597.
Gandhi, M. (1924) Hindus and Moplahs, Young India 1924-26, vol. II, https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.211139/2015.211139.Young-India_djvu.txt.
Goldberg, D. T. (2009) Racial comparisons, relational racisms: Some thoughts on method. Ethnic and Racial Studies. 32 (7), 1271-1282, doi: 10.1080/01419870902999233.
Gould, W. (2004) Hindu Nationalism and the Language of Politics in Late Colonial India, vol. XI. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Guha, R. (1999) Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Hardgrave, R. (1977) The Mappilla Rebellion, 1921: Peasant revolt in Malabar. Modern Asian Studies. 11 (1), 57-99.
Hasan, M. (1991) Nationalism and Communal Politics in India, 1885-1930. New Delhi: Manohar Publications.
Hasan, M. (1999) My Life: A Fragment: An Autobiographical Sketch of Maulana Mohamed Ali. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers.
Hassan, M. (2017) Longing for the Lost Caliphate. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Hitchcock, R. H. (1983) Peasant Revolt in Malabar: A History of the Malabar Rebellion, 1921. New Delhi: Usha Publications.
Jaffrelot, C. (1996) The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India. New York: Columbia University Press.
Jalal, A. (2000) Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam since 1850. London: Routledge.
Kazimi, N. (2008) The caliphate attempted. Current Trends in Islamist Ideology. 7, 5-49.
Kodur, M. A. (1995) The Anglo-Mappila War (Malayalam). Calicut: Islamic Publishing House.
Kunhikrishnan, V. V. (1993) Tenancy Legislation in Malabar, 1889-1970: An Historical Analysis. New Delhi: Northern Book Centre.
Kurup, K. K. N. (1988) Peasantry and the anti-imperialist struggles in Kerala. Social Scientist. 16 (9), 35-45, doi: 10.2307/3517171.
Kurup, K. K. N. (2002) The Ali Rajas of Cannanore, Calicut University Press, Calicut.
Letter to Baghdadi (2014) http://www.lettertobaghdadi.com/.
Liebl, V. (2009) The Caliphate. Middle Eastern Studies. 45 (3), 373-91, doi: 10.1080/00263200902853355
Lloyd, N. (2015) Colonial counter-insurgency in Southern India: The Malabar Rebellion, 1921-1922. Contemporary British History. 29 (3), 297-317, doi: 10.1080/13619462.2014.980725.
Logan, W. (1951) Malabar Manual (Malayalam). Calicut: Mathrubhumi Books.
MacIntyre, A. (1977) Epistemological crises, dramatic narrative, and the philosophy of science. The Monist. 60 (4), 453-72, doi: 10.5840/monist197760427.
Malik, H. (1963) Moslem Nationalism in India and Pakistan. Washington, DC: Public Affairs Press.
Malik, N. (2018) Trump is Creating his American Caliphate and Democracy has No Defence. The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/jun/18/trump-american-caliphate-democracy-arab-world.
Malkawi, F. H. (2016) Epistemological Integration: Essentials of an Islamic Methodology. Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought.
Martin, G. R. R. (2008) Inside Straight: A Wild Cards Novel. New York: Tor Books.
Menon, D. M. (2016) A prehistory of violence? Revolution and martyrs in the making of a political tradition in Kerala, South Asia. Journal of South Asian Studies. 39 (3), 662-77, doi: 10.1080/00856401.2016.1195452.
Miller, R. (1992) The Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study in Islamic Trends. Hyderabad: Sangam Books Ltd.
Minault, G. (1982) The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press, doi: 10.1086/ahr/88.3.737-a.
Moffitt, D. (1989) Crescent in the Sky: Book One of the Mechanical Sky. New York: Ballantine Books.
Moffitt, D. (1990) A Gathering of Stars: Book Two of the Mechanical Sky. New York: Ballantine Books.
Manchester Guardian (1944) Mr. Gandhi's offer. Manchester Guardian. http://0-search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/docview/478468285?accountid=14664.
Nair, G. C. (1923) Moplah Rebellion of 1921. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, https://archive.org/stream/MoplahRebellion1921/Moplah%20rebellion,%201921_djvu.txt.
Nanda, B. R. (1989) Gandhi: Pan-Islamism, Imperialism and Nationalism in India. Oxford: Oxford University Press, doi: 10.1086/ahr/97.5.1583-a.
New York Times (1938) Gandhi would back war to end Nazi persecution. http://0-search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/docview/102473041?accountid=14664.
Niemeijer, A. C. (2012) The Khilafat Movement in India 1919-1924. Leiden: Brill Publications.
Noack, R. (2017) One of the few places where a communist can still dream. Washington Post, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/the-place-where-communists-can-still-dream/2017/10/26/55747cbe-9c98-11e7-b2a7-bc70b6f98089_story.html?utm_term=.7503e862cecf.
Nuruddin, Y. (2006) Ancient black astronauts and extraterrestrial Jihads: Islamic science fiction as urban mythology. Socialism and Democracy. 20 (3), 127-65, doi: 10.1080/08854300600950277.
Olsson, S. (2014) The Islamic framing in Donald Moffitt's science fiction series the mechanical sky. Journal of Religion and Popular Culture. 26 (1), 71, doi: 10.3138/jrpc.26.1.71.
Ozcan, A. (1997) Pan-Islam: Indian Muslims, the Ottomans and Britain (1877-1924). Leiden: Brill Publications.
Panikkar, K. N. (1989) Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar 1836-1921. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, doi: 10.1177/001946469002700110.
Panniker, K. N. (2007) Colonialism, Culture and Resistance. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Pankhurst, R. (2013) The Inevitable Caliphate: A History of the Struggle for Global Islamic Union, 1924 to the Present. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Prabakharan, P. (2012) Agrarian Social Structure and Peasant Consciousness and Mobilization in Kerala during the Colonial Period (1800-1947) – a case study of Malabar. Calicut: University of Calicut.
Qureshi, N. M. (1999) Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918-1924. Leiden: Brill Publications.
Reid, A. (1972) Habib Abdur-Rahman Az-Zahir, (1833-1896), Indonesia. 13, 37-59.
Said, E. W. (2007) Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography. New York: Columbia University Press.
Sayyid, S. (1997) A Fundamental Fear: Eurocentrism and the Emergence of Islamism, 3rd ed. London: Zed Books.
Sayyid, S. (2014) Recalling the Caliphate: Decolonisation and World Order. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Skinner, Q. (1969) Meaning and understanding in the history of ideas. History and Theory. 8 (1), 3-53.
Smith, W. C. (1985) Modern Islam in India: A Social Analysis. New Delhi: Usha Publications.
University of Maryland (2007) Muslim public opinion on US policy, attacks on civilians and al Qaeda, http://worldpublicopinion.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/START_Apr07_rpt.pdf.
Watson, W. J. (1955) Muḥammad Ali and the Khilafat Movement. Master's thesis, McGill University Libraries, Canada.
Wickham, C. R. (2002) Mobilizing Islam: Religion, Activism, and Political Change in Egypt. New York: Columbia University Press, doi: 10.1017/s1537592703940321.
Winter, O. (2016) The Islamic Caliphate: A Controversial Consensus. In Y. Schweitzer and O. Einav (eds.), The Islamic State: How Viable is it? Tel Aviv: Institute for National Security Studies, 27-35.
Zavos, J. (2000) The Emergence of Hindu Nationalism in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Achebe, C. and Jaggi, M. (2001) Anthills of the Savannah. London: Penguin Modern Classics.

[2] Ahmad, I. (2014) Gandhi, Palestine and Israel. https://kafila.online/2014/08/02/gandhi-palestine-and-israel-irfan-ahmad/.

[3] Ali, M. M. (1930) Speech at the Fourth Plenary Session of the Round Table Conference in London. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_muhammadali_1930.html.

[4] Ambedkar, B. (2013) Pakistan or the Partition of India. New Delhi: Samyak Publishers.

[5] Anjum, O. (2019) Who wants the caliphate? Yaqeen Institute, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/ovamiranjum/who-wants-the-caliphate (accessed 10 January 2020).

[6] Ansari, M. T. (2016) Islam and Nationalism in India: South Indian Contexts. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

[7] Ansari, M. T. (2005) Refiguring the fanatic: Malabar, 1836-1922. In S Mayaram, M. S. S. Pandyan and A. Skaria (eds.), Subaltern Studies. Delhi: Permanent Black and Ravi Dayal, XII, 36-77.

[8] Ansari, S. F. D. (2003) Sufi Saints and State Power: The Pirs of Sind, 1843-1947. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[9] Aydin, C. (2007) The Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia: Visions of World Order in Pan-Islamic and Pan-Asian Thought. New York: Columbia University Press, doi: 10.7312/aydi13778.

[10] Aydin, C. (2016) Imperial paradoxes: A caliphate for subaltern Muslims. ReOrient. 1 (2), 171-91.

[11] Aydin, C. (2017) The Idea of the Muslim World: A Global Intellectual History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[12] Aziz, A. (1968) An eighteenth-century theory of the caliphate. Studia Islamica. 28, 135-44, doi: 10.2307/1595266.

[13] Babbitt, S. E. (2001) Objectivity and the role of bias. Engendering Rationalities. 27, 297-314.

[14] Bamford, P. C. (1974) Histories of the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movements. Delhi: Deep Publications.

[15] Bar, S. (2016) The implications of the caliphate. Journal of Comparative Strategy. 35 (1), 1-14.

[16] Bruinessen, van M. (1995) Muslims of the Dutch East Indies and the caliphate question. Studia Islamika. 2 (3), 115-40, doi: 10.15408/sdi.v2i3.829.

[17] Bulliet, R. W. (1994) Islam: The View from the Edge. New York: Columbia University Press.

[18] Carey, C., Quick, J., Quinn, J., Wallace, D. and Fry, J. (2004) Geonosis and the Outer Rim Worlds (Star Wars Roleplaying Game). Washington, DC: Wizards of the Coast.

[19] Celso, A. (2016) More than the voice of the caliphate: The destructive legacy of Abu Muhammad Al-Adnani. International Journal of Political Science. 2 (4), 86-94, doi: 10.20431/2454-9452.0204009.

[20] Crooke, A. (2009) Resistance: The Essence of the Islamist Revolution. London: Pluto Press.

[21] Dale, S. (1980) Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Mappilas of Malabar, 1498-1922. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

[22] Devji, F. (2008) The Terrorist in Search of Humanity: Militant Islam and Global Politics. London: Hurst & Co.

[23] Finkelstein, N. G. (2012) What Gandhi Says: About Nonviolence, Resistance and Courage. New York: OR Books, doi: 10.2307/j.ctt1bkm686..

[24] Fowkes, B. and Gökay, B. (2009) Unholy alliance: Muslims and communists – an introduction. Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics. 25 (1), 1-31, doi: 10.1080/13523270802655597.

[25] Gandhi, M. (1924) Hindus and Moplahs, Young India 1924-26, vol. II, https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.211139/2015.211139.Young-India_djvu.txt.

[26] Goldberg, D. T. (2009) Racial comparisons, relational racisms: Some thoughts on method. Ethnic and Racial Studies. 32 (7), 1271-1282, doi: 10.1080/01419870902999233.

[27] Gould, W. (2004) Hindu Nationalism and the Language of Politics in Late Colonial India, vol. XI. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[28] Guha, R. (1999) Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

[29] Hardgrave, R. (1977) The Mappilla Rebellion, 1921: Peasant revolt in Malabar. Modern Asian Studies. 11 (1), 57-99.

[30] Hasan, M. (1991) Nationalism and Communal Politics in India, 1885-1930. New Delhi: Manohar Publications.

[31] Hasan, M. (1999) My Life: A Fragment: An Autobiographical Sketch of Maulana Mohamed Ali. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers.

[32] Hassan, M. (2017) Longing for the Lost Caliphate. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

[33] Hitchcock, R. H. (1983) Peasant Revolt in Malabar: A History of the Malabar Rebellion, 1921. New Delhi: Usha Publications.

[34] Jaffrelot, C. (1996) The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India. New York: Columbia University Press.

[35] Jalal, A. (2000) Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam since 1850. London: Routledge.

[36] Kazimi, N. (2008) The caliphate attempted. Current Trends in Islamist Ideology. 7, 5-49.

[37] Kodur, M. A. (1995) The Anglo-Mappila War (Malayalam). Calicut: Islamic Publishing House.

[38] Kunhikrishnan, V. V. (1993) Tenancy Legislation in Malabar, 1889-1970: An Historical Analysis. New Delhi: Northern Book Centre.

[39] Kurup, K. K. N. (1988) Peasantry and the anti-imperialist struggles in Kerala. Social Scientist. 16 (9), 35-45, doi: 10.2307/3517171.

[40] Kurup, K. K. N. (2002) The Ali Rajas of Cannanore, Calicut University Press, Calicut.

[41] Letter to Baghdadi (2014) http://www.lettertobaghdadi.com/.

[42] Liebl, V. (2009) The Caliphate. Middle Eastern Studies. 45 (3), 373-91, doi: 10.1080/00263200902853355

[43] Lloyd, N. (2015) Colonial counter-insurgency in Southern India: The Malabar Rebellion, 1921-1922. Contemporary British History. 29 (3), 297-317, doi: 10.1080/13619462.2014.980725.

[44] Logan, W. (1951) Malabar Manual (Malayalam). Calicut: Mathrubhumi Books.

[45] MacIntyre, A. (1977) Epistemological crises, dramatic narrative, and the philosophy of science. The Monist. 60 (4), 453-72, doi: 10.5840/monist197760427.

[46] Malik, H. (1963) Moslem Nationalism in India and Pakistan. Washington, DC: Public Affairs Press.

[47] Malik, N. (2018) Trump is Creating his American Caliphate and Democracy has No Defence. The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/jun/18/trump-american-caliphate-democracy-arab-world.

[48] Malkawi, F. H. (2016) Epistemological Integration: Essentials of an Islamic Methodology. Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought.

[49] Martin, G. R. R. (2008) Inside Straight: A Wild Cards Novel. New York: Tor Books.

[50] Menon, D. M. (2016) A prehistory of violence? Revolution and martyrs in the making of a political tradition in Kerala, South Asia. Journal of South Asian Studies. 39 (3), 662-77, doi: 10.1080/00856401.2016.1195452.

[51] Miller, R. (1992) The Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study in Islamic Trends. Hyderabad: Sangam Books Ltd.

[52] Minault, G. (1982) The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press, doi: 10.1086/ahr/88.3.737-a.

[53] Moffitt, D. (1989) Crescent in the Sky: Book One of the Mechanical Sky. New York: Ballantine Books.

[54] Moffitt, D. (1990) A Gathering of Stars: Book Two of the Mechanical Sky. New York: Ballantine Books.

[55] Manchester Guardian (1944) Mr. Gandhi's offer. Manchester Guardian. http://0-search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/docview/478468285?accountid=14664.

[56] Nair, G. C. (1923) Moplah Rebellion of 1921. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, https://archive.org/stream/MoplahRebellion1921/Moplah%20rebellion,%201921_djvu.txt.

[57] Nanda, B. R. (1989) Gandhi: Pan-Islamism, Imperialism and Nationalism in India. Oxford: Oxford University Press, doi: 10.1086/ahr/97.5.1583-a.

[58] New York Times (1938) Gandhi would back war to end Nazi persecution. http://0-search.proquest.com.wam.leeds.ac.uk/docview/102473041?accountid=14664.

[59] Niemeijer, A. C. (2012) The Khilafat Movement in India 1919-1924. Leiden: Brill Publications.

[60] Noack, R. (2017) One of the few places where a communist can still dream. Washington Post, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/the-place-where-communists-can-still-dream/2017/10/26/55747cbe-9c98-11e7-b2a7-bc70b6f98089_story.html?utm_term=.7503e862cecf.

[61] Nuruddin, Y. (2006) Ancient black astronauts and extraterrestrial Jihads: Islamic science fiction as urban mythology. Socialism and Democracy. 20 (3), 127-65, doi: 10.1080/08854300600950277.

[62] Olsson, S. (2014) The Islamic framing in Donald Moffitt's science fiction series the mechanical sky. Journal of Religion and Popular Culture. 26 (1), 71, doi: 10.3138/jrpc.26.1.71.

[63] Ozcan, A. (1997) Pan-Islam: Indian Muslims, the Ottomans and Britain (1877-1924). Leiden: Brill Publications.

[64] Panikkar, K. N. (1989) Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar 1836-1921. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, doi: 10.1177/001946469002700110.

[65] Panniker, K. N. (2007) Colonialism, Culture and Resistance. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

[66] Pankhurst, R. (2013) The Inevitable Caliphate: A History of the Struggle for Global Islamic Union, 1924 to the Present. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

[67] Prabakharan, P. (2012) Agrarian Social Structure and Peasant Consciousness and Mobilization in Kerala during the Colonial Period (1800-1947) – a case study of Malabar. Calicut: University of Calicut.

[68] Qureshi, N. M. (1999) Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918-1924. Leiden: Brill Publications.

[69] Reid, A. (1972) Habib Abdur-Rahman Az-Zahir, (1833-1896), Indonesia. 13, 37-59.

[70] Said, E. W. (2007) Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography. New York: Columbia University Press.

[71] Sayyid, S. (1997) A Fundamental Fear: Eurocentrism and the Emergence of Islamism, 3rd ed. London: Zed Books.

[72] Sayyid, S. (2014) Recalling the Caliphate: Decolonisation and World Order. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

[73] Skinner, Q. (1969) Meaning and understanding in the history of ideas. History and Theory. 8 (1), 3-53.

[74] Smith, W. C. (1985) Modern Islam in India: A Social Analysis. New Delhi: Usha Publications.

[75] University of Maryland (2007) Muslim public opinion on US policy, attacks on civilians and al Qaeda, http://worldpublicopinion.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/START_Apr07_rpt.pdf.

[76] Watson, W. J. (1955) Muḥammad Ali and the Khilafat Movement. Master's thesis, McGill University Libraries, Canada.

[77] Wickham, C. R. (2002) Mobilizing Islam: Religion, Activism, and Political Change in Egypt. New York: Columbia University Press, doi: 10.1017/s1537592703940321.

[78] Winter, O. (2016) The Islamic Caliphate: A Controversial Consensus. In Y. Schweitzer and O. Einav (eds.), The Islamic State: How Viable is it? Tel Aviv: Institute for National Security Studies, 27-35.

[79] Zavos, J. (2000) The Emergence of Hindu Nationalism in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.