The feminised service sector: from micro to macro analysis

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Work Organisation, Labour and Globalisation

Volume 6, Issue 1

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The feminised service sector: from micro to macro analysis

research-article

Author(s): Babs Grossman

Publication date (Print): Spring 2012

Journal: Work Organisation, Labour and Globalisation

Publisher: Pluto Journals

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Abstract

Research concerned with the relationship between gender and service work has typically relied on micro-level analyses, and privileged affective explanations of the feminised service sector. The resulting scholarship, which often uses the ‘emotional labour’ framework first introduced by Arlie Hochschild (1983), has come to dominate gender and service work literature in such a way that other potentially useful analytical frameworks have been left relatively unexplored. Recently, this approach has been critically engaged with by scholars in an attempt to expand and enrich understandings of the relationship between service occupations and gender on a global scale. In particular, new scholarship on gender and service work has called attention to the convergence of local understandings of gender within the new international division of labour. This emergent macro-level and transnational research represents an exciting new body of work that merits review and consideration.

Content

Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (doi): 10.13169

Journal ID (publisher-id): workorgalaboglob

Title: Work Organisation, Labour and Globalisation

Publisher: Pluto Journals

ISSN (Print): 1745641X

ISSN (Electronic): 17456428

Publication date (Print): Spring 2012

Volume: 6

Issue: 1

Pages: 63-79

Article

Publisher ID: workorgalaboglob.6.1.0063

DOI: 10.13169/workorgalaboglob.6.1.0063

SO-VID: 5e047163-f089-48f8-b05b-74698092f4d6

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All content is freely available without charge to users or their institutions. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission of the publisher or the author. Articles published in the journal are distributed under a http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

History

ScienceOpen disciplines: Sociology,Labor law,Political science,Labor & Demographic economics,Political economics

References

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Alvesson, M. (1998) ‘Gender Relations and Identity at Work: A Case Study of Masculinities and Femininities in an Advertising Agency’, Human Relations , 51 (8):969–1005.
Baines, D. (2006) ‘Staying With People Who Slap Us Around: Gender, Juggling Responsibilities and Violence in Paid (and Unpaid) Care Work’, Gender, Work and Organization , 13 (2):129–151.
Bales, K. (2002) ‘Because She Looks Like a Child’ in B. Ehrenreich & A. R. Hochschild (eds.) Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy , New York: Metropolitan Books:207–229.
Bartolomei, M. R. (2010) ‘Migrant Male Domestic Workers in Comparative Perspective: Four Case Studies from Italy, India, Ivory Coast and Congo’, Men and Masculinities , 13 (1):87–110.
Bolton, S. C. & C. Boyd (2003) ‘Trolley Dolley or Skilled Emotion Manager? Moving on from Hochschild's Managed Heart’, Work, Employment and Society , 17:289–307.
Bolton, S. C. & M. Houlihan (2005) ‘The (Mis)Representation of Customer Service’, Work, Employment and Society , 19:685–702.
Brook, P. (2009a) ‘The Alienated Heart: Hochschild's Emotional Labour thesis and the Anticapitalist Politics of Alienation’, Capital and Class , 98:7–31.
Brook, P. (2009b) ‘In Critical Defense of Emotional Labour: Refuting Bolton's Critique of Hochschild's Concept’, Work, Employment and Society , 23:531–548.
Brown, K. & M. Korczynski (2010) ‘When Caring and Surveillance Technology meet: Organizational Commitment and Discretionary Effort in Home Care Work’, Work and Occupations , 37 (3):404–432.
Bryson, J. R., P. W. Daniels & B. Warf (eds.). (2004) Service Worlds: People, Organizations and Technologies , New York: Routledge.
Chang, G. (2000) Disposable Domestics: Immigrant Women Workers in the Global Economy’ , Cambridge, MA: South End Press.
Claassen, R. (2011) ‘The Commodification of Care’, Hypatia , 26 (1):43–64.
Dean, D. (2005) ‘Recruiting a Self: Women Performers and Aesthetic Labour’, Work, Employment and Society , 19, (4):761–774.
Dyer, S., L. McDowell & A. Batnitzky (2010) ‘The Impact of Migration on the Gendering of Service Work: The Case of a West London Hotel’ Gender Work and Organization , 17 (6):635–657.
Dyer, S., L. McDowell & A. Batnitzky (2008) ‘Emotional Labour/Body Work: The Caring Labours of Migrants in the UK's National Health Service’, Geoforum , 39:2030–2038.
Ehrenreich, B, & A. R. Hochschild (eds.). (2002) Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy , New York: Metropolitan Books.
Ehrenreich, B. (2002) ‘Maid to Order’ in B. Ehrenreich & A. R Hochschild (eds.) Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy , New York: Metropolitan Books:85–103
Elson, D. & R. Pearson (1981) ‘Nimble Fingers Make Cheap Workers: An Analysis of Women's Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing’, Feminist Review , 7:87–107.
England, P. (2005) ‘Emerging Theories of Care Work’, Annual Review of Sociology , 31:381–399.
Entwistle, J. & E. Wissinger (2006) ‘Keeping up Appearances: Aesthetic Labour in the Fashion Modeling Industries of London and New York’, The Sociological Review , 54, (4):774–794.
Fernandez-Kelly, M. P. (1983) For We Are Sold, I and My People: Women and Industry in Mexico's Frontier , Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Findlay, P., J. Findlay & R. Stewart (2009) ‘The Consequences of Caring: Skills, Regulation and Reward Among Early Years Workers’, Work, Employment and Society , 23, (4):422–441.
Fisher, M. J. (2009) ‘“Being a Chameleon”: Labour Processes of Male Nurses Performing Bodywork’, Journal of Advanced Nursing , 65, (12):2668–2677.
Forseth, U. (2005) ‘Gender Matters? Exploring How Gender is Negotiated in Service Encounters’, Gender, Work and Organization , 12 (5):440–459.
Godwyn, M. (2006) ‘Using Emotional Labor to Create and Maintain Relationships in Service Interactions,’ Symbolic Interaction , 29 (4):487–506.
Gottfried, H. (2003) ‘Tempting Bodies: Shaping Gender at Work in Japan’, Sociology , 37 (2):257–276.
Hanser, A. (2005) ‘The gendered rice bowl: The sexual politics of service work in urban China,’ Gender and Society , 19:581–600.
Himmelweit, S. (1999) ‘Caring Labor’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , Vol 561:27–38.
Hochschild, A. R (1983) The Managed Heart: The Commercialization of Human Feeling , Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Kerfoot, D. & M. Korczynski (2005) ‘Editorial – Gender and Service: New Directions for the Study of “Front-line” Service Work’, Gender, Work and Organization , 12 (5):387–399.
Korvajärvi, P. (2009) ‘Attracting Customers Through Practicing Gender in Call-Centre Work’, Work, Organisation, Labour and Globalisation , Vol 3, No 1:131–143.
Lan, P. (2006) Global Cinderellas: Migrant Domestics and Newly Rich Employers in Taiwan , Raleigh, NC: Duke University Press.
Lee, C. K. (1998) Gender and the South China Miracle: Two Worlds of Factory Women , Berkeley: University of California Press.
Leidner, R. (1991) ‘Serving Hamburgers and Selling Insurance: Gender, Work, and Identity in Interactive Service Jobs’, Gender and Society , 5 (2):154–177.
Leidner, R. (1999) ‘Emotional Labor in Service Work’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 561:81–95.
Lopez, S. H. (2010) ‘Workers, Managers, and Customers: Triangles of Power in Work Communities’ Work and Occupations , 37 (3):251–271.
Lopez, S. H. (2006) ‘Emotional Labor and Organized Emotional Care: Conceptualizing Nursing Home Care Work’, Work and Occupations , 33:133–160.
Lynch, K. (2007) ‘Love Labour as a Distinct and Non-Commodifiable Form of Care Labour’, The Sociological Review , 5, (3):550–570.
Martin, S. E. (1999) ‘Police Force of Police Service? Gender and Emotional Labor’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 561:111–126.
McClure, R. & C. Murphy (2007) ‘Contesting the Dominance of Emotional Labour in Professional Nursing,’ Journal of Health Organization and Management , 21 (2):101–120.
McDowell, L. (2009) Working Bodies: Interactive Service Employment and Workplace Identities , Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
McKie, L., G. Hogg, L. Airey, K. Backett-Milburn & Z. Rew (2009) ‘Autonomy, Control and Job Advancement: The Case of Low Paid Women Working in Food Retail’, Work, Employment and Society , 23 (4):787–796.
Nare, L. (2010) ‘Sri Lankan Men Working as Cleaners and Carers: Negotiating Masculinity in Naples’, Men and Masculinities , 13 (1):65–86.
Ogbonna, E. & L. C. Harris (2002) ‘Managing Organisational Culture: Insights from the Hospitality Industry’, Human Resource Management Journal , 12 (1):33–53.
Otis, E. (2008) ‘Beyond the industrial paradigm: market-embedded labor and the gender organization of global service work in China’, American Sociological Review , 73 (1):15–36.
Parreñas, R. S. (2001) Servants of Globalization: Women, Migration and Domestic Work , Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Parreñas, R. S. (2002) ‘The Care Crisis in the Philippines: Children and Transnational Families in the New Global Economy’, in B. Ehrenreich & A. R. Hochschild (eds.) Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy , New York: Metropolitan Books:39–54.
Pettinger, L. (2005) ‘Gendered Work Meets Gendered Goods: Selling and Service in Clothing Retail’, Gender, Work and Organization , 12 (5):461–478.
Pugliesi, K. (1999) ‘The Consequences of Emotional Labor: Effects on Work Stress, Job Satisfaction and Well-Being’, Motivation and Emotion , 23, (2):125–154.
Sallaz, J. J. (2010) ‘Service and Symbolic Power: On Putting Bourdieu to Work’ Work and Occupations , 37 (3):295–319.
Salzinger, L. (2003) Genders in Production: Making Workers in Mexico's Global Factories , Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Sassen, S. (2002) ‘Global Cities and Survival Circuits’, in B. Ehrenreich & A. R. Hochschild (eds.) Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy , New York: Metropolitan Books:254–274.
Scrinzi, F. (2011) ‘Gender, Migration and the Ambiguous Enterprise of Professionalizing Domestic Service’, Feminist Review , 98:153–172.
Sherman, R. (2010) ‘“Time Is Our Commodity”: Gender and the Struggle for Occupational Legitimacy Among Personal Concierges’, Work and Occupations , 37 (1):81–114.
Steinberg, R. J. and D. M. Figart (1999a) ‘Emotional Labour Since: The Managed Heart’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 561:8–26.
Steinberg, R. J. & D. M. Figart (1999b) ‘Emotional Demands at Work: A Job Content Analysis’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 561:177–191.
Wallerstein, I. (1974) The Modern World System, I , New York: Academic Press.
Warhurst, C., D. Nickson, A. Witz, & A. M. Cullen (2000) ‘Aesthetic Labour in Interactive Service Work: Some Case Study Evidence from the “New” Glasgow’, The Service Industries Journal , 20 (3):1–18.
Warhurst, C. & D. Nickson (2007) ‘Employee Experience of Aesthetic Labour in Retail and Hospitality’, Work, Employment and Society , 21 (1):103–120.
Warhurst, C. & D. Nickson (2009) ‘Who's Got the Look? Emotional Aesthetic and Sexualized Labour in Interactive Services’, Gender, Work and Organization , 16 (3):386–404.
Wharton, A. S. (2011) ‘The Sociology of Arlie Hochschild’, Work and Occupations , 38 (4): 459–464.
Wharton, A. S. (1999) ‘The Psychosocial Consequences of Emotional Labor’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 561:158–176.
Wharton, A. S. (1993) ‘The Affective Consequences of Service Work: Managing Emotions on the Job’, Work and Occupations , 20:205–232.
Wharton, A. S. & R. J. Erickson (1993) ‘Managing Emotions on the Job and at Home: Understanding the Consequences of Multiple Emotional Roles’, The Academy of Management Review , 18 (3):457–486.
Witz, A., Warhurst, C. & D. Nickson (2003) ‘The Labour of Aesthetics and the Aesthetics of Organization’, Organization , 10 (1):33–54.
Wolkowitz, C. (2002). ‘The Social Relations of Body Work’, Work, Employment and Society , 16 (3):497–510.
Wright, M. (2006) Disposable Women and Other Myths of Global Capitalism , New York: Routledge.
Zarembka, J. M. (2002) ‘America's Dirty Work: Migrant Maids and Modern-Day Slavery’ in B. Ehrenreich & A. R. Hochschild (eds.) Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy , New York: Metropolitan Books:142–153.
Zimmerman, M. K., J. S. Litt & C. E. Bose (eds.) (2006) Global Dimensions of Carework and Gender , Stanford, CA: Stanford Social Sciences.

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Adkins, L. & C. Lury (1999) ‘The Labour of Identity: Performing Identities, Performing Economies’, Economy and Society , 28, (4):598–614.

[2] Alvesson, M. (1998) ‘Gender Relations and Identity at Work: A Case Study of Masculinities and Femininities in an Advertising Agency’, Human Relations , 51 (8):969–1005.

[3] Baines, D. (2006) ‘Staying With People Who Slap Us Around: Gender, Juggling Responsibilities and Violence in Paid (and Unpaid) Care Work’, Gender, Work and Organization , 13 (2):129–151.

[4] Bales, K. (2002) ‘Because She Looks Like a Child’ in B. Ehrenreich & A. R. Hochschild (eds.) Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy , New York: Metropolitan Books:207–229.

[5] Bartolomei, M. R. (2010) ‘Migrant Male Domestic Workers in Comparative Perspective: Four Case Studies from Italy, India, Ivory Coast and Congo’, Men and Masculinities , 13 (1):87–110.

[6] Bolton, S. C. & C. Boyd (2003) ‘Trolley Dolley or Skilled Emotion Manager? Moving on from Hochschild's Managed Heart’, Work, Employment and Society , 17:289–307.

[7] Bolton, S. C. & M. Houlihan (2005) ‘The (Mis)Representation of Customer Service’, Work, Employment and Society , 19:685–702.

[8] Brook, P. (2009a) ‘The Alienated Heart: Hochschild's Emotional Labour thesis and the Anticapitalist Politics of Alienation’, Capital and Class , 98:7–31.

[9] Brook, P. (2009b) ‘In Critical Defense of Emotional Labour: Refuting Bolton's Critique of Hochschild's Concept’, Work, Employment and Society , 23:531–548.

[10] Brown, K. & M. Korczynski (2010) ‘When Caring and Surveillance Technology meet: Organizational Commitment and Discretionary Effort in Home Care Work’, Work and Occupations , 37 (3):404–432.

[11] Bryson, J. R., P. W. Daniels & B. Warf (eds.). (2004) Service Worlds: People, Organizations and Technologies , New York: Routledge.

[12] Chang, G. (2000) Disposable Domestics: Immigrant Women Workers in the Global Economy’ , Cambridge, MA: South End Press.

[13] Claassen, R. (2011) ‘The Commodification of Care’, Hypatia , 26 (1):43–64.

[14] Dean, D. (2005) ‘Recruiting a Self: Women Performers and Aesthetic Labour’, Work, Employment and Society , 19, (4):761–774.

[15] Dyer, S., L. McDowell & A. Batnitzky (2010) ‘The Impact of Migration on the Gendering of Service Work: The Case of a West London Hotel’ Gender Work and Organization , 17 (6):635–657.

[16] Dyer, S., L. McDowell & A. Batnitzky (2008) ‘Emotional Labour/Body Work: The Caring Labours of Migrants in the UK's National Health Service’, Geoforum , 39:2030–2038.

[17] Ehrenreich, B, & A. R. Hochschild (eds.). (2002) Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy , New York: Metropolitan Books.

[18] Ehrenreich, B. (2002) ‘Maid to Order’ in B. Ehrenreich & A. R Hochschild (eds.) Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy , New York: Metropolitan Books:85–103

[19] Elson, D. & R. Pearson (1981) ‘Nimble Fingers Make Cheap Workers: An Analysis of Women's Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing’, Feminist Review , 7:87–107.

[20] England, P. (2005) ‘Emerging Theories of Care Work’, Annual Review of Sociology , 31:381–399.

[21] Entwistle, J. & E. Wissinger (2006) ‘Keeping up Appearances: Aesthetic Labour in the Fashion Modeling Industries of London and New York’, The Sociological Review , 54, (4):774–794.

[22] Fernandez-Kelly, M. P. (1983) For We Are Sold, I and My People: Women and Industry in Mexico's Frontier , Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

[23] Findlay, P., J. Findlay & R. Stewart (2009) ‘The Consequences of Caring: Skills, Regulation and Reward Among Early Years Workers’, Work, Employment and Society , 23, (4):422–441.

[24] Fisher, M. J. (2009) ‘“Being a Chameleon”: Labour Processes of Male Nurses Performing Bodywork’, Journal of Advanced Nursing , 65, (12):2668–2677.

[25] Forseth, U. (2005) ‘Gender Matters? Exploring How Gender is Negotiated in Service Encounters’, Gender, Work and Organization , 12 (5):440–459.

[26] Godwyn, M. (2006) ‘Using Emotional Labor to Create and Maintain Relationships in Service Interactions,’ Symbolic Interaction , 29 (4):487–506.

[27] Gottfried, H. (2003) ‘Tempting Bodies: Shaping Gender at Work in Japan’, Sociology , 37 (2):257–276.

[28] Hanser, A. (2005) ‘The gendered rice bowl: The sexual politics of service work in urban China,’ Gender and Society , 19:581–600.

[29] Himmelweit, S. (1999) ‘Caring Labor’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , Vol 561:27–38.

[30] Hochschild, A. R (1983) The Managed Heart: The Commercialization of Human Feeling , Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

[31] Kerfoot, D. & M. Korczynski (2005) ‘Editorial – Gender and Service: New Directions for the Study of “Front-line” Service Work’, Gender, Work and Organization , 12 (5):387–399.

[32] Korvajärvi, P. (2009) ‘Attracting Customers Through Practicing Gender in Call-Centre Work’, Work, Organisation, Labour and Globalisation , Vol 3, No 1:131–143.

[33] Lan, P. (2006) Global Cinderellas: Migrant Domestics and Newly Rich Employers in Taiwan , Raleigh, NC: Duke University Press.

[34] Lee, C. K. (1998) Gender and the South China Miracle: Two Worlds of Factory Women , Berkeley: University of California Press.

[35] Leidner, R. (1991) ‘Serving Hamburgers and Selling Insurance: Gender, Work, and Identity in Interactive Service Jobs’, Gender and Society , 5 (2):154–177.

[36] Leidner, R. (1999) ‘Emotional Labor in Service Work’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 561:81–95.

[37] Lopez, S. H. (2010) ‘Workers, Managers, and Customers: Triangles of Power in Work Communities’ Work and Occupations , 37 (3):251–271.

[38] Lopez, S. H. (2006) ‘Emotional Labor and Organized Emotional Care: Conceptualizing Nursing Home Care Work’, Work and Occupations , 33:133–160.

[39] Lynch, K. (2007) ‘Love Labour as a Distinct and Non-Commodifiable Form of Care Labour’, The Sociological Review , 5, (3):550–570.

[40] Martin, S. E. (1999) ‘Police Force of Police Service? Gender and Emotional Labor’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 561:111–126.

[41] McClure, R. & C. Murphy (2007) ‘Contesting the Dominance of Emotional Labour in Professional Nursing,’ Journal of Health Organization and Management , 21 (2):101–120.

[42] McDowell, L. (2009) Working Bodies: Interactive Service Employment and Workplace Identities , Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

[43] McKie, L., G. Hogg, L. Airey, K. Backett-Milburn & Z. Rew (2009) ‘Autonomy, Control and Job Advancement: The Case of Low Paid Women Working in Food Retail’, Work, Employment and Society , 23 (4):787–796.

[44] Nare, L. (2010) ‘Sri Lankan Men Working as Cleaners and Carers: Negotiating Masculinity in Naples’, Men and Masculinities , 13 (1):65–86.

[45] Ogbonna, E. & L. C. Harris (2002) ‘Managing Organisational Culture: Insights from the Hospitality Industry’, Human Resource Management Journal , 12 (1):33–53.

[46] Otis, E. (2008) ‘Beyond the industrial paradigm: market-embedded labor and the gender organization of global service work in China’, American Sociological Review , 73 (1):15–36.

[47] Parreñas, R. S. (2001) Servants of Globalization: Women, Migration and Domestic Work , Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

[48] Parreñas, R. S. (2002) ‘The Care Crisis in the Philippines: Children and Transnational Families in the New Global Economy’, in B. Ehrenreich & A. R. Hochschild (eds.) Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy , New York: Metropolitan Books:39–54.

[49] Pettinger, L. (2005) ‘Gendered Work Meets Gendered Goods: Selling and Service in Clothing Retail’, Gender, Work and Organization , 12 (5):461–478.

[50] Pugliesi, K. (1999) ‘The Consequences of Emotional Labor: Effects on Work Stress, Job Satisfaction and Well-Being’, Motivation and Emotion , 23, (2):125–154.

[51] Sallaz, J. J. (2010) ‘Service and Symbolic Power: On Putting Bourdieu to Work’ Work and Occupations , 37 (3):295–319.

[52] Salzinger, L. (2003) Genders in Production: Making Workers in Mexico's Global Factories , Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

[53] Sassen, S. (2002) ‘Global Cities and Survival Circuits’, in B. Ehrenreich & A. R. Hochschild (eds.) Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy , New York: Metropolitan Books:254–274.

[54] Scrinzi, F. (2011) ‘Gender, Migration and the Ambiguous Enterprise of Professionalizing Domestic Service’, Feminist Review , 98:153–172.

[55] Sherman, R. (2010) ‘“Time Is Our Commodity”: Gender and the Struggle for Occupational Legitimacy Among Personal Concierges’, Work and Occupations , 37 (1):81–114.

[56] Steinberg, R. J. and D. M. Figart (1999a) ‘Emotional Labour Since: The Managed Heart’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 561:8–26.

[57] Steinberg, R. J. & D. M. Figart (1999b) ‘Emotional Demands at Work: A Job Content Analysis’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 561:177–191.

[58] Wallerstein, I. (1974) The Modern World System, I , New York: Academic Press.

[59] Warhurst, C., D. Nickson, A. Witz, & A. M. Cullen (2000) ‘Aesthetic Labour in Interactive Service Work: Some Case Study Evidence from the “New” Glasgow’, The Service Industries Journal , 20 (3):1–18.

[60] Warhurst, C. & D. Nickson (2007) ‘Employee Experience of Aesthetic Labour in Retail and Hospitality’, Work, Employment and Society , 21 (1):103–120.

[61] Warhurst, C. & D. Nickson (2009) ‘Who's Got the Look? Emotional Aesthetic and Sexualized Labour in Interactive Services’, Gender, Work and Organization , 16 (3):386–404.

[62] Wharton, A. S. (2011) ‘The Sociology of Arlie Hochschild’, Work and Occupations , 38 (4): 459–464.

[63] Wharton, A. S. (1999) ‘The Psychosocial Consequences of Emotional Labor’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 561:158–176.

[64] Wharton, A. S. (1993) ‘The Affective Consequences of Service Work: Managing Emotions on the Job’, Work and Occupations , 20:205–232.

[65] Wharton, A. S. & R. J. Erickson (1993) ‘Managing Emotions on the Job and at Home: Understanding the Consequences of Multiple Emotional Roles’, The Academy of Management Review , 18 (3):457–486.

[66] Witz, A., Warhurst, C. & D. Nickson (2003) ‘The Labour of Aesthetics and the Aesthetics of Organization’, Organization , 10 (1):33–54.

[67] Wolkowitz, C. (2002). ‘The Social Relations of Body Work’, Work, Employment and Society , 16 (3):497–510.

[68] Wright, M. (2006) Disposable Women and Other Myths of Global Capitalism , New York: Routledge.

[69] Zarembka, J. M. (2002) ‘America's Dirty Work: Migrant Maids and Modern-Day Slavery’ in B. Ehrenreich & A. R. Hochschild (eds.) Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy , New York: Metropolitan Books:142–153.

[70] Zimmerman, M. K., J. S. Litt & C. E. Bose (eds.) (2006) Global Dimensions of Carework and Gender , Stanford, CA: Stanford Social Sciences.