Towards a digital syllable-based reading intervention: An interview study with second- graders

Reading is an essential ability and a cornerstone of education. However, learning to read can be challenging for children. To scaffold young learners, a number of reading interventions were developed, including a syllable-based approach in German, which has proven to be successful, but resource and time consuming through individual interaction by educators. To improve the reach of the reading intervention, we present the first step towards a digital intervention, following a human-centred design approach. In this contribution, we present the implementation of a digital prototype, developed with the feedback of expert evaluations, as well as an interview study with second-graders. The results of interviews with children showed that the app is suitable to be applied in the target age group, that children had fun using it and were motivated to further do so. The study also provides design implications for transferring an analogue concept into a digital application.

Content

Author and article information

Contributors

Philipp Schaper

Anna Riedmann

Bettina Müller

Birgit Lugrin

Conference

Publication date: July 2021

Publication date (Print): July 2021

Pages: 271-283

Affiliations

[1 ]Human-Computer-Interaction

Julius-Maximilians-University of Wuerzburg

Wuerzburg, Germany

[2 ]Educational Psychology

Julius-Maximilians-University of Wuerzburg

Wuerzburg, Germany

Article

DOI: 10.14236/ewic/HCI2021.29

SO-VID: 6512958f-3121-4693-9e09-b1b318d41d6b

License:

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Conference name: 34th British HCI Conference

Conference acronym: HCI2021

Conference number: 34

Conference location: London, UK

Conference date: 20th - 21st July 2021

Conference sponsor: Electronic Workshops in Computing (eWiC)

Conference theme: Post-pandemic HCI – Living Digitally

History

Product

1477-9358 BCS Learning & Development

Self URI (article page): https://www.scienceopen.com/hosted-document?doi=10.14236/ewic/HCI2021.29

Self URI (journal page): https://ewic.bcs.org/

REFERENCES

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J. Bastian, & S. Aufenanger (2017). Tablets in Schule und Unterricht [Tablet use in school and teaching]. Wiesbaden: Springer.
G. Biancarosa, & G. G. Griffiths (2012). Technology tools to support reading in the digital age. The Future of Children, 22(2), 139-160.
K. P. Blair (2013). Learning in critter corral: evaluating three kinds of feedback in a preschool math app. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Interaction Design and Children.
H. Blok, R. Oostdam, M. E. Otter, & M. Overmaat (2002). Computer-assisted instruction in support of beginning reading instruction: A review. Review of educational research, 72(1), 101-130.
W. Bos, I. Tarelli, A. Bremerich-Vos, & K. Schwippert (2012). IGLU 2011 Lesekompetenzen von Grundschulkindern im internationalen Vergleich [IGLU 2011: International Comparison of Reading Skills in Primary School]. Münster: Waxmann.
M. Cahill, & A. McGill-Franzen (2013). Selecting “app” ealing and “app” ropriate book apps for beginning readers. The reading teacher, 67(1), 30-39.
M. Coltheart, K. Rastle, C. Perry, R. Langdon, & J. Ziegler (2001). DRC: a dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological review, 108(1), 204.
DU-Apps-Studio. (2018). DU Recorder 1.7.5.5.
J. Ecalle, A. Magnan, & C. Calmus (2009). Lasting effects on literacy skills with a computer-assisted learning using syllabic units in low-progress readers. Computers & Education, 52(3), 554-561.
L. C. Ehri (1995). Phases of development in learning to read words by sight. Journal of Research in Reading, 18(2), 116-125.
L. C. Ehri (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of reading, 9(2), 167-188.
M. L. Epstein, B. B. Epstein, & G. M. Brosvic (2001). Immediate feedback during academic testing. Psychological Reports, 88(3), 889-894.
K. A. Ericsson, R. T. Krampe, & C. Tesch-Römer (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological review, 100(3), 363.
C. Fahnoe, & P. Mishra (2013). Do 21st century learning environments support self-directed learning? Middle school students’ response to an intentionally designed learning environment. Paper presented at the Society for information technology & teacher education international conference.
E. Fleischhauer, J. Schledjewski, & M. Grosche (2017). Apps zur Förderung von Rechtschreibfähigkeiten im Grundschulalter [Apps to support orthography in primary school age]. Lernen und Lernstörungen.
B. R. Foorman, D. J. Francis, J. M. Fletcher, C. Schatschneider, & P. Mehta (1998). The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 37-55.
D. J. Francis, S. E. Shaywitz, K. K. Stuebing, B. A. Shaywitz, & J. M. Fletcher (1996). Developmental lag versus deficit models of reading disability: A longitudinal, individual growth curves analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(1), 3-17.
J. Google (2019). Android Studio.
R. Görgen, S. Huemer, G. Schulte-Körne, & K. Moll (2020). Evaluation of a digital game-based reading training for German children with reading disorder. Computers & Education, 150, 103834.
K. Groth, S. Hasko, J. Bruder, S. Kunze, & G. Schulte-Körne (2013). Interventionseffekte bei Lese Rechtschreibstörung: evaluation von zwei Förderkonzepten unter besonderer Betrachtung methodischer Aspekte [Measurement of treatment in developmental dyslexia under methodological considerations]. Lernen und Lernstörungen.
A. Grotlüschen, & W. Riekmann (2011). leo.–Level-One Studie. Magazin erwachsenenbildung.at, 77.
R. Harrison, D. Flood, & D. Duce (2013). Usability of mobile applications: literature review and rationale for a new usability model. Journal of Interaction Science, 1(1), 1-16.
B. Haßler, L. Major, & S. Hennessy (2016). Tablet use in schools: A critical review of the evidence for learning outcomes. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 32(2), 139-156.
R. Heikkilä, M. Aro, V. Närhi, J. Westerholm, & T. Ahonen (2013). Does training in syllable recognition improve reading speed? A computer-based trial with poor readers from second and third grade. Scientific Studies of reading, 17(6), 398-414.
S. Henderson, & J. Yeow (2012). iPad in education: A case study of iPad adoption and use in a primary school. Paper presented at the 2012 45th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences.
K. Hirsh-Pasek, J. M. Zosh, R. M. Golinkoff, J. H. Gray, M. B. Robb, & J. Kaufman (2015). Putting education in “educational” apps: Lessons from the science of learning. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 16(1), 3-34.
K. Hochberg, J. Kuhn, & A. Müller (2018). Using smartphones as experimental tools— effects on interest, curiosity, and learning in physics education. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 27(5), 385-403.
S. Huemer, M. Aro, K. Landerl, & H. Lyytinen (2010). Repeated reading of syllables among Finnish-speaking children with poor reading skills. Scientific Studies of reading, 14(4), 317-340.
A. Hußmann, H. Wendt, W. Bos, A. Bremerich-Vos, D. Kasper, E.-M. Lankes, . . . R. Valtin (2017). IGLU 2016. Lesekompetenzen von Grundschulkindern in Deutschland im internationalen Vergleich [IGLU 2016: International Comparison of Reading Skills in Primary School]: Münster; New York: Waxmann.
M. Klatte, C. Steinbrink, K. Bergström, & T. Lachmann (2013). Phonologische Verarbeitung bei Grundschulkindern mit schwacher Lesefähigkeit [Phonological processing in german poor readers: A pilot study evaluating a computer-based training program]. Lernen und Lernstörungen.
K. Landerl, & H. Wimmer (2008). Development of word reading fluency and spelling in a consistent orthography: an 8-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 150.
J. A. Logan, S. A. Hart, L. Cutting, K. Deater-Deckard, C. Schatschneider, & S. Petrill (2013). Reading development in young children: Genetic and environmental influences. Child development, 84(6), 2131-2144.
M. Maertens, M. Vandewaetere, F. Cornillie, & P. Desmet (2014). From pen-and-paper content to educational math game content for children: A transfer with added difficulty. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 2(2), 85-92.
T. Mejtoft, L. Lindberg, U. Söderström, & E. Mårell-Olsson (2017). Feedback in commercial educational applications: Guidelines and conceptual framework. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics 2017.
E. O. Mkpojiogu, A. Hussain, & F. a. Hassan (2018). A systematic review of usability quality attributes for the evaluation of mobile learning applications for children. Paper presented at the AIP Conference Proceedings.
H. Morgan (2013). Multimodal children’s e-books help young learners in reading. Early Childhood Education Journal, 41(6), 477-483.
B. Müller, G. Otterbein-Gutsche, & T. Richter (2018). Leseförderung mit Silben und Sprachsystematik: Konzeption eines Trainingsprogramms [Systematic reading improvement using syllables: An intervention program]. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht, 65, 52-57.
B. Müller, T. Richter, & P. Karageorgos (2020). Syllable-based reading improvement: Effects on word reading and reading comprehension in Grade 2. Learning and Instruction, 66.
B. Müller, T. Richter, P. Karageorgos, S. Krawietz, & M. Ennemoser (2017). Effects of a Syllable-Based Reading Intervention in Poor-Reading Fourth Graders. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(1635).
B. Müller, T. Richter, & G. Otterbein-Gutsche (2020). Lesen mit Willy Wortbär: Ein silbenbasiertes Training zur Förderung der Worterkennung beim Lesen [Reading with Willy Wortbär: A syllable-based intervention to foster visual word recognition]. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.
T. Nagler, S. Lindberg, & M. Hasselhorn (2017). Leseentwicklung im Grundschulalter. Kognitive Grundlagen und Risikofaktoren [Reading development in children. Cognitive preconditions and risk factors]. Lernen und Lernstörungen.
J. Naumann, C. Artelt, W. Schneider, & P. Stanat (2010). Lesekompetenz von PISA 2000 bis PISA 2009.
S. Papadakis, M. Kalogiannakis, & N. Zaranis (2018). Educational apps from the Android Google Play for Greek preschoolers: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 116, 139-160.
M. Pfost, J. Hattie, T. Dörfler, & C. Artelt (2014). Individual differences in reading development: A review of 25 years of empirical research on Matthew effects in reading. Review of educational research, 84(2), 203-244.
T. Rashid, & H. M. Asghar (2016). Technology use, self-directed learning, student engagement and academic performance: Examining the interrelations. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 604-612.
J. P. Rossing, W. Miller, A. K. Cecil, & S. E. Stamper (2012). iLearning: The future of higher education? Student perceptions on learning with mobile tablets. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 12(2), 1-26.
R. Scherer, J. Tondeur, F. Siddiq, & E. Baran (2018). The importance of attitudes toward technology for pre-service teachers' technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge: Comparing structural equation modeling approaches. Computers in Human Behavior, 80, 67-80.
W. Schoppek, & M. Tulis (2010). Enhancing arithmetic and word-problem solving skills efficiently by individualized computer-assisted practice. The Journal of Educational Research, 103(4), 239-252.
S. Schroeder, K.-M. Würzner, J. Heister, A. Geyken, & R. Kliegl (2015). childLex: A lexical database of German read by children. Behavior research methods, 47(4), 1085-1094.
C. H. Su, & C. H. Cheng (2015). A mobile gamification learning system for improving the learning motivation and achievements. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 31(3), 268-286.
Y.-T. Sung, K.-E. Chang, & T.-C. Liu (2016). The effects of integrating mobile devices with teaching and learning on students' learning performance: A meta-analysis and research synthesis. Computers & Education, 94, 252-275.
G. Tacke (2005). Evaluation eines Lesetrainings zur Förderung lese-rechtschreibschwacher Grundschüler der zweiten Klasse [Evaluation of a remedial reading training with dyslexic second graders in primary school]. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht(3), 198-209.
A. Tillmann, & C. Bremer (2017). Einsatz von Tablets in Grundschulen. In J. Bastian & S. Aufenanger (Eds.), Tablets in Schule und Unterricht: Forschungsmethoden und -perspektiven zum Einsatz digitaler Medien [Tablets in school and teaching: Research methods and perspectives on the use of digital media] (pp. 241-276). Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden.
J. Underwood, R. Luckin, & N. Winters (2012). Managing resource ecologies for mobile, personal and collaborative self-directed language learning. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 34, 226-229.
VERBI Software. (2018). MAXQDA 2018. Berlin, Germany: VERBI Software.
C. Walter-Laager, K. Brandenberg, L. Tinguely, J. Schwarz, M. R. Pfiffner, & B. Moschner (2017). Media-assisted language learning for young children: Effects of a word-learning app on the vocabulary acquisition of two-year-olds. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(4), 1062-1072.

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Axure Software Solutions Inc. (2019). Axure. San Diego, USA: Axure Software Solutions Inc.

[2] J. Bastian, & S. Aufenanger (2017). Tablets in Schule und Unterricht [Tablet use in school and teaching]. Wiesbaden: Springer.

[3] G. Biancarosa, & G. G. Griffiths (2012). Technology tools to support reading in the digital age. The Future of Children, 22(2), 139-160.

[4] K. P. Blair (2013). Learning in critter corral: evaluating three kinds of feedback in a preschool math app. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Interaction Design and Children.

[5] H. Blok, R. Oostdam, M. E. Otter, & M. Overmaat (2002). Computer-assisted instruction in support of beginning reading instruction: A review. Review of educational research, 72(1), 101-130.

[6] W. Bos, I. Tarelli, A. Bremerich-Vos, & K. Schwippert (2012). IGLU 2011 Lesekompetenzen von Grundschulkindern im internationalen Vergleich [IGLU 2011: International Comparison of Reading Skills in Primary School]. Münster: Waxmann.

[7] M. Cahill, & A. McGill-Franzen (2013). Selecting “app” ealing and “app” ropriate book apps for beginning readers. The reading teacher, 67(1), 30-39.

[8] M. Coltheart, K. Rastle, C. Perry, R. Langdon, & J. Ziegler (2001). DRC: a dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological review, 108(1), 204.

[9] DU-Apps-Studio. (2018). DU Recorder 1.7.5.5.

[10] J. Ecalle, A. Magnan, & C. Calmus (2009). Lasting effects on literacy skills with a computer-assisted learning using syllabic units in low-progress readers. Computers & Education, 52(3), 554-561.

[11] L. C. Ehri (1995). Phases of development in learning to read words by sight. Journal of Research in Reading, 18(2), 116-125.

[12] L. C. Ehri (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of reading, 9(2), 167-188.

[13] M. L. Epstein, B. B. Epstein, & G. M. Brosvic (2001). Immediate feedback during academic testing. Psychological Reports, 88(3), 889-894.

[14] K. A. Ericsson, R. T. Krampe, & C. Tesch-Römer (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological review, 100(3), 363.

[15] C. Fahnoe, & P. Mishra (2013). Do 21st century learning environments support self-directed learning? Middle school students’ response to an intentionally designed learning environment. Paper presented at the Society for information technology & teacher education international conference.

[16] E. Fleischhauer, J. Schledjewski, & M. Grosche (2017). Apps zur Förderung von Rechtschreibfähigkeiten im Grundschulalter [Apps to support orthography in primary school age]. Lernen und Lernstörungen.

[17] B. R. Foorman, D. J. Francis, J. M. Fletcher, C. Schatschneider, & P. Mehta (1998). The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 37-55.

[18] D. J. Francis, S. E. Shaywitz, K. K. Stuebing, B. A. Shaywitz, & J. M. Fletcher (1996). Developmental lag versus deficit models of reading disability: A longitudinal, individual growth curves analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(1), 3-17.

[19] J. Google (2019). Android Studio.

[20] R. Görgen, S. Huemer, G. Schulte-Körne, & K. Moll (2020). Evaluation of a digital game-based reading training for German children with reading disorder. Computers & Education, 150, 103834.

[21] K. Groth, S. Hasko, J. Bruder, S. Kunze, & G. Schulte-Körne (2013). Interventionseffekte bei Lese Rechtschreibstörung: evaluation von zwei Förderkonzepten unter besonderer Betrachtung methodischer Aspekte [Measurement of treatment in developmental dyslexia under methodological considerations]. Lernen und Lernstörungen.

[22] A. Grotlüschen, & W. Riekmann (2011). leo.–Level-One Studie. Magazin erwachsenenbildung.at, 77.

[23] R. Harrison, D. Flood, & D. Duce (2013). Usability of mobile applications: literature review and rationale for a new usability model. Journal of Interaction Science, 1(1), 1-16.

[24] B. Haßler, L. Major, & S. Hennessy (2016). Tablet use in schools: A critical review of the evidence for learning outcomes. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 32(2), 139-156.

[25] R. Heikkilä, M. Aro, V. Närhi, J. Westerholm, & T. Ahonen (2013). Does training in syllable recognition improve reading speed? A computer-based trial with poor readers from second and third grade. Scientific Studies of reading, 17(6), 398-414.

[26] S. Henderson, & J. Yeow (2012). iPad in education: A case study of iPad adoption and use in a primary school. Paper presented at the 2012 45th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences.

[27] K. Hirsh-Pasek, J. M. Zosh, R. M. Golinkoff, J. H. Gray, M. B. Robb, & J. Kaufman (2015). Putting education in “educational” apps: Lessons from the science of learning. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 16(1), 3-34.

[28] K. Hochberg, J. Kuhn, & A. Müller (2018). Using smartphones as experimental tools— effects on interest, curiosity, and learning in physics education. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 27(5), 385-403.

[29] S. Huemer, M. Aro, K. Landerl, & H. Lyytinen (2010). Repeated reading of syllables among Finnish-speaking children with poor reading skills. Scientific Studies of reading, 14(4), 317-340.

[30] A. Hußmann, H. Wendt, W. Bos, A. Bremerich-Vos, D. Kasper, E.-M. Lankes, . . . R. Valtin (2017). IGLU 2016. Lesekompetenzen von Grundschulkindern in Deutschland im internationalen Vergleich [IGLU 2016: International Comparison of Reading Skills in Primary School]: Münster; New York: Waxmann.

[31] M. Klatte, C. Steinbrink, K. Bergström, & T. Lachmann (2013). Phonologische Verarbeitung bei Grundschulkindern mit schwacher Lesefähigkeit [Phonological processing in german poor readers: A pilot study evaluating a computer-based training program]. Lernen und Lernstörungen.

[32] K. Landerl, & H. Wimmer (2008). Development of word reading fluency and spelling in a consistent orthography: an 8-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 150.

[33] J. A. Logan, S. A. Hart, L. Cutting, K. Deater-Deckard, C. Schatschneider, & S. Petrill (2013). Reading development in young children: Genetic and environmental influences. Child development, 84(6), 2131-2144.

[34] M. Maertens, M. Vandewaetere, F. Cornillie, & P. Desmet (2014). From pen-and-paper content to educational math game content for children: A transfer with added difficulty. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 2(2), 85-92.

[35] T. Mejtoft, L. Lindberg, U. Söderström, & E. Mårell-Olsson (2017). Feedback in commercial educational applications: Guidelines and conceptual framework. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics 2017.

[36] E. O. Mkpojiogu, A. Hussain, & F. a. Hassan (2018). A systematic review of usability quality attributes for the evaluation of mobile learning applications for children. Paper presented at the AIP Conference Proceedings.

[37] H. Morgan (2013). Multimodal children’s e-books help young learners in reading. Early Childhood Education Journal, 41(6), 477-483.

[38] B. Müller, G. Otterbein-Gutsche, & T. Richter (2018). Leseförderung mit Silben und Sprachsystematik: Konzeption eines Trainingsprogramms [Systematic reading improvement using syllables: An intervention program]. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht, 65, 52-57.

[39] B. Müller, T. Richter, & P. Karageorgos (2020). Syllable-based reading improvement: Effects on word reading and reading comprehension in Grade 2. Learning and Instruction, 66.

[40] B. Müller, T. Richter, P. Karageorgos, S. Krawietz, & M. Ennemoser (2017). Effects of a Syllable-Based Reading Intervention in Poor-Reading Fourth Graders. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(1635).

[41] B. Müller, T. Richter, & G. Otterbein-Gutsche (2020). Lesen mit Willy Wortbär: Ein silbenbasiertes Training zur Förderung der Worterkennung beim Lesen [Reading with Willy Wortbär: A syllable-based intervention to foster visual word recognition]. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.

[42] T. Nagler, S. Lindberg, & M. Hasselhorn (2017). Leseentwicklung im Grundschulalter. Kognitive Grundlagen und Risikofaktoren [Reading development in children. Cognitive preconditions and risk factors]. Lernen und Lernstörungen.

[43] J. Naumann, C. Artelt, W. Schneider, & P. Stanat (2010). Lesekompetenz von PISA 2000 bis PISA 2009.

[44] S. Papadakis, M. Kalogiannakis, & N. Zaranis (2018). Educational apps from the Android Google Play for Greek preschoolers: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 116, 139-160.

[45] M. Pfost, J. Hattie, T. Dörfler, & C. Artelt (2014). Individual differences in reading development: A review of 25 years of empirical research on Matthew effects in reading. Review of educational research, 84(2), 203-244.

[46] T. Rashid, & H. M. Asghar (2016). Technology use, self-directed learning, student engagement and academic performance: Examining the interrelations. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 604-612.

[47] J. P. Rossing, W. Miller, A. K. Cecil, & S. E. Stamper (2012). iLearning: The future of higher education? Student perceptions on learning with mobile tablets. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 12(2), 1-26.

[48] R. Scherer, J. Tondeur, F. Siddiq, & E. Baran (2018). The importance of attitudes toward technology for pre-service teachers' technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge: Comparing structural equation modeling approaches. Computers in Human Behavior, 80, 67-80.

[49] W. Schoppek, & M. Tulis (2010). Enhancing arithmetic and word-problem solving skills efficiently by individualized computer-assisted practice. The Journal of Educational Research, 103(4), 239-252.

[50] S. Schroeder, K.-M. Würzner, J. Heister, A. Geyken, & R. Kliegl (2015). childLex: A lexical database of German read by children. Behavior research methods, 47(4), 1085-1094.

[51] C. H. Su, & C. H. Cheng (2015). A mobile gamification learning system for improving the learning motivation and achievements. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 31(3), 268-286.

[52] Y.-T. Sung, K.-E. Chang, & T.-C. Liu (2016). The effects of integrating mobile devices with teaching and learning on students' learning performance: A meta-analysis and research synthesis. Computers & Education, 94, 252-275.

[53] G. Tacke (2005). Evaluation eines Lesetrainings zur Förderung lese-rechtschreibschwacher Grundschüler der zweiten Klasse [Evaluation of a remedial reading training with dyslexic second graders in primary school]. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht(3), 198-209.

[54] A. Tillmann, & C. Bremer (2017). Einsatz von Tablets in Grundschulen. In J. Bastian & S. Aufenanger (Eds.), Tablets in Schule und Unterricht: Forschungsmethoden und -perspektiven zum Einsatz digitaler Medien [Tablets in school and teaching: Research methods and perspectives on the use of digital media] (pp. 241-276). Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden.

[55] J. Underwood, R. Luckin, & N. Winters (2012). Managing resource ecologies for mobile, personal and collaborative self-directed language learning. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 34, 226-229.

[56] VERBI Software. (2018). MAXQDA 2018. Berlin, Germany: VERBI Software.

[57] C. Walter-Laager, K. Brandenberg, L. Tinguely, J. Schwarz, M. R. Pfiffner, & B. Moschner (2017). Media-assisted language learning for young children: Effects of a word-learning app on the vocabulary acquisition of two-year-olds. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(4), 1062-1072.

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