1. INTRODUCTION
Phytosomes are a novel drug delivery system used to increase the bioavailability of phytoconstituents. It involves conjugating plant materials or extracts with phospholipids. Phytosomes consist of a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail. The water-soluble free drug is entrapped within the hydrophilic head ( Figure 1 ). The size of phytosomes is 1–100 nm. This technology had garnered interest in the pharmaceutical community, because of its abilities to enhance the solubility of poorly soluble plant extracts and increase absorption. The phytosome complex formed between a phytoconstituent and phospholipid has a liposomal structure, but is stable and has favorable pharmacokinetics, thus increasing the absorption of phytoconstituents, and enhancing therapeutic effects. The formulation of phytosomes includes selection of the phyto-constituent and phospholipid, and optimization of their ratios to achieve maximum benefit [1]. Herein, we explore the formulation, evaluation, and potential applications of phytosomes in modern medicine.
Several reviews and original articles have addressed the formulation of phytosomes, including methods of preparation and evaluation of phytosomes for topical and oral drugs. A review has also described various nanoparticulate formulations, including phytosomes, niosomes, ethosomes, and liposomes, that enhance the delivery properties of poorly soluble phytoconstituents. Phospholipid complexes represent a promising advance in drug delivery systems, because of their ability to enhance the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs. These complexes, known as phytosomes, encapsulate phytoconstituents in phospholipids, thereby facilitating phytoconstituent absorption and targeting to specific organs or tissues. Recent progress in technology has further increased the versatility of phytosomes. For instance, advancements in nanotechnology have enabled the design of phytosomes with precise particle sizes and surface characteristics, thus optimizing their interaction with biological membranes, and enabling controlled release profiles and increased therapeutic outcomes. In formulation, innovative strategies such as co-solvency and solvent evaporation techniques have been used to tailor the physicochemical properties of phytosomes, to ensure stability and reproducibility in manufacturing. Moreover, the integration of natural excipients has enhanced biocompatibility and minimized potential toxicity, thereby expanding the application spectrum of phytosomes in the pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries [2].
Phytochemicals derived from plants have had critical roles in the treatment of diseases since ancient times and continue to be used in the development of modern dosage forms. Recent years have seen a high demand for standardized herbal formulations with increased bioavailability and potential therapeutic effects. Drug bioavailability is an important parameter governing therapeutic efficacy. Drug delivery approaches have shifted from conventional dosage forms to novel drug delivery systems, such as phytosomes. Phytosomes are a recent introduction to modern nutraceuticals and other health and natural products. Phytosomes are a patented process for formulating natural products for oral and topical use, by using a technology that binds the active ingredient to a phospholipid. Essentially, phytosomes are advanced forms of herbal medicine that were developed to increase the bioavailability of herbal extracts, and have been shown to have superior pharmacokinetics and efficacy to standard herbal extracts. These complexes play important roles in varying the organoleptic properties of formulations, such as the appearance, mouthfeel, and release of active ingredients [3].
1.1 Definition of phytosomes
The binding of phospholipids to standardized plant extracts increases the absorption and bioavailability of certain plant constituents. This increased bioavailability might lead to more pronounced clinical effects, which might be useful for certain patients, thus providing benefits from the consumer perspective. Phytosome technology offers a new and promising method to deliver the medicinal benefits of herbs to consumers, and to distinguish branded plant extracts from standardized extracts. With patents protecting various processes and the efficacy of these phytosome products, phytosome technology offers a proprietary alternative to generic standardized plant extracts. Efficacy and differentiation from other products are strong selling points that increase the confidence of consumers and manufacturers of herbal products. Finally, the increased absorption and tolerability of phytosome products might open new possibilities for the use of plant extracts in foods and beverages [4].
Phytosomes, representing a novel use of an old idea, are an advanced production form of herbal medicines. Through a patented process, plant extracts are bound to phospholipids, thereby creating a lipid-compatible molecular complex. Little scientific information has been available on this new technology, but as the market for herbal medicines has grown, so too has the need for specific and safe dosage forms of plant extracts. Consequently, phytosomes are an area of substantial research interest in herbal medicine [5].
1.2 Benefits of phytosomes in formulations
Phytosomes increase the active absorption of active ingredients and systemic bioavailability when administered orally. This advanced form of herbal products achieves better efficacy than conventional herbal extracts. Phytosomes have more favorable pharmacokinetics than simple herbal drugs [2]. Moreover, phytosomes are biologically converted into essential phytonutrients, thus conferring an assimilation advantage, and they have longer shelf stability than all other herbal products available on the market [3]. Phytosomes can be formulated in several ways, such as with modifications enabling targeting of specific organs before the release of pharmacological agents [6]. Moreover, the application of these preventive interventions through disease modeling is expected to accelerate patient healing and enhance care satisfaction levels [2].
1.3 Importance of phytosomes in medicine
Phytotherapy, the use of plant extracts for the prevention and treatment of diseases, dates to ancient Indian, Greek, Chinese, and Egyptian civilizations. Currently, the growing demand for natural products, and for increasing health status in humans and animals, has increased the use of phytomedicines. Some people believe that these traditional systems lack a scientific basis, primarily due to the application of modern scientific parameters to traditional medicinal systems and the lack of information regarding such parameters in traditional texts. One such example is the concept of biodosis, the optimal therapeutic dose that is effective and safe. This information is not available for many phytomedicines, thus leading to harmful underdosing or overdosing. Therefore, a need exists to exchange information between modern and traditional medicine systems to benefit society, and integrate phytomedicines with modern drug delivery systems [7].
Phytosomes are a new patented technology developed to make plant extracts more effective and better absorbed. Phytosomes comprise plant extracts bound to natural phospholipids, thus forming a lipid-compatible molecular complex. During this patented process, standardized plant extract is mixed and incubated with a specific molar ratio of phosphatidylcholine (from soya). The solution then is dried at low temperature under a vacuum and/or an inert gas to ensure that the chemical and biological activity of the plant extract is not altered. The final product is a highly hygroscopic powder that is easily formed into tablets. These phytosome molecular complexes facilitate assimilation, which pertains to the ability to cross lipid-based biomembranes in the body. Consequently, the plant extract and its constituents can reach cells and cellular compartments—a key aspect for bioavailability; therefore, phytosomes provide products with enhanced effectiveness [3].
1.4 Scope of the review
Phytosomes, also known as phytosome complexes or phytostandard complexes, are a type of herbal formulation in which the active ingredients of medicinal plants are bound to phospholipids, typically phosphatidylcholine. This complexation enhances the bioavailability and efficacy of the plant extracts. The scope and potential applications of phytosomes are described below.
1.4.1 Enhanced bioavailability
Phytosome technology can render poorly soluble phytochemicals soluble and capable of crossing the intestinal epithelial membrane, thereby enhancing their solubility and permeability. Because of the increased bioavailability, comparable results can be achieved by administration of tablets with lower content of the active substance.
1.4.2 Medicinal plant extracts
Phytosomes can be prepared by using herbs from various medicinal plants, such as milk thistle, ginkgo biloba, green tea, grape seed, and turmeric. These diverse pharmacological substances have been applied in traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases.
1.4.3 Therapeutic applications
Phytosome technology can target most therapeutic areas in health care, including liver treatment, cardiovascular health, cognitive function, joint health, skin health, and weight management. For example, silymarin phytosomes extracted from milk thistle play roles in liver protection and regeneration, and ginkgo biloba plays a role in cognitive enhancement and has been used in phytosome form [6].
1.4.4 Nutraceuticals and dietary supplements
Phytosomes are frequently incorporated into the composition of nutraceuticals and supplements for nutrient delivery. Phytosomes represent modulators of medicinal plants with standardized proportions of their active components, ensuring the reliability of their efficiency.
1.4.5 Cosmeceuticals
Phytosomes have found applications in the manufacturing of many cosmeceutical products, such as antioxidant formulations, which are useful in skincare. In addition to phytosomal plant extracts that provide antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging benefits, topical application subtly enhances the skin, making them beneficial for skincare products.
1.4.6 Research and development
New ideas in phytosome technology include using a variety of plants, increasing formulas, and searching for unexposed applications for therapeutics. With increasing research on phytosomes and plant pharmacology, substantially more phytosome applications are anticipated in the future [8].
The principle of phytosomes is based on the requirement for using large numbers of medical plants to achieve successful treatment with high bioavailability and efficacy, in contrast to traditional herbal formulations. Currently, foods enriched with probiotics are viewed not only as dietary supplements but also as potential foods with high medicinal value; this topic is therefore a potential area for research and development in the pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries.
2. PHYTOSOME FORMULATION METHODS
Phytosomes can be produced by blending plant extracts with phospholipids through a complex process [2]. An example of this method is the use of the solvent evaporation technique by dissolving plant extracts in an organic solvent alongside phospholipids [8]. As the solvent slowly evaporates from the mixture, phytosomes are formed. Another method is the rotary evaporation technique, in which a rotary evaporator is used to eliminate the solvent from the mixture while leaving the phytosomes [3]. Phytosomes are formed by mixing plant extracts with phospholipids in the same solution, followed by a phase separation process to create the final phytosomal structure. The methods described herein are necessary to make phytosomes suitable for various pharmaceutical uses ( Figure 2 ) [9].
2.1 Solvent evaporation method
Phytosome formulation is among the techniques used for solvent evaporation. A general outline of these steps is described below.
Any suitable phospholipid, preferably phosphatidylcholine, that will create a complex with the phytoconstituents in the medicinal plant extract can be chosen. An appropriate solvent is chosen to dissolve both the phospholipids and phyto-ingredients. Commonly used solvents include ethanol, methanol, chloroform, and mixtures of these solvents, depending on the solubility of the components and the desired characteristics of the final product. An extraction method (such as maceration, Soxhlet extraction, or supercritical fluid extraction) is used to obtain valuable phytoconstituents from medicinal plants, which are concentrated if necessary to achieve the desired active compound concentration. The phospholipid is dispersed in the chosen solvent until a clear solution forms. In addition, more concentrated plant extracts are dissolved in either the same or another solvent. The proper phospholipid, usually phosphatidylcholine, is chosen to combine with substances such as phytoconstituents in extracts from medicinal plants. The ideal solvent should be capable of dissolving both lipid and compounds of plant origin. Frequently used solvents include ethanol, methanol, chloroform, or mixtures thereof, depending on the components’ solubility and the desired end product characteristics. The required phytochemicals are obtained from the medicinal plant by using an appropriate extraction method, such as maceration, Soxhlet extraction, or supercritical fluid extraction, then concentrated if necessary to achieve the desired concentration of active compounds. Phospholipids are dissolved in the selected solvents until a clear solution forms. In addition, concentrated extracts of plants are dissolved in the same or different solvents.
Plant extract is added to phospholipid solution under stirring. These components interact and form phytosome complexes ( Figure 3 ). Techniques such as rotary evaporation ( Figure 4 ) are used to remove the solvent from the complexes under reduced pressure and controlled temperature. After further drying to remove residues, techniques such as spray drying are applied to obtain a fine powder. Tests are conducted to determine properties such as particle size, stability, and purity. The product must be ensured to be consistent and pure. The product is placed in suitable containers protecting against moisture, light, and oxidation, and must be kept under proper conditions to ensure stability and effectiveness [10].
Solvent drying aids in obtaining increased phytosomes with enhanced usability and stability. This technique is favorable for making herbal products. Bombax ceiba phytosomes have been prepared with solvent evaporation methods. Bombax ceiba is used for its hepatoprotective activity. Extracts have been complexed with soya lecithin to achieve enhanced bioavailability [11].
2.1.1 Advantages of the solvent evaporation technique
Simple and Cost-effective: Requires relatively basic equipment, such as rotary evaporators, and therefore is accessible to most laboratories; cost-efficient, because it avoids the use of highly specialized tools.
Scalability: Can be adapted for both small-scale laboratory preparations and large-scale industrial production.
Efficient Lipid Incorporation: Facilitates homogeneous mixing of lipids and active compounds (e.g., phytoconstituents), thus increasing entrapment efficiency [12].
Increased Stability: Produces phytosomes of uniform size and structure, thereby enhancing the physical and chemical stability of the vesicles.
Retention of Active Compounds: Uses mild operating conditions, which help preserve the bioactivity of sensitive phytoconstituents such as flavonoids and alkaloids [13].
2.1.2 Disadvantages of the solvent evaporation technique
Use of Organic Solvents: Uses organic solvents, which can be toxic and pose health risks if not handled properly; potential for residual solvents to remain in the final product, thus necessitating additional purification steps.
Energy-intensive: Requires heating or vacuum systems for solvent evaporation, thus increasing energy consumption.
Environmental Concerns: Requires disposal of organic solvents, which can contribute to environmental pollution if not managed responsibly.
Limited Suitability for Hydrophilic Compounds: Diminished effectiveness for incorporating highly hydrophilic phytoconstituents, which might require alternative methods or modifications.
Batch Variability: Potential for slight deviations in parameters (e.g., evaporation rate or lipid-to-drug ratio) to lead to inconsistencies in vesicle size and drug loading [14].
2.2 Coacervation technique
The coacervation method is used for making phytosomes, mainly for wrapping oily phytoelements in phospholipid layers, as described below.
First, a phospholipid is mixed with solvents such as ethanol or chloroform. These lipids are used for making phytosomes. Next, the plant extract or isolated compound, which scarcely dissolves in water, is suspended in an aqueous solution. Stabilizers and surfactants in this solution prevent clumping and aid in dispersion. In step three, the phospholipid is mixed and combined with the aqueous plant solution under controlled conditions. Stirring, sonication, and homogenization methods are used to combine the solutions. As they are blended, the phospholipids begin to enwrap the plant molecules in their bilayer structures. Coacervation separates a liquid into two distinct phases, and is affected by changes such as temperature, acid levels, or salt addition. The phospholipids then gather into small droplets with plant compounds trapped inside. As the droplets form, they harden. Techniques such as solvent evaporation, spray drying, or freeze-drying are used to remove liquid and solidify the phytosome particles ( Figure 5 ) [15].
Once created, phytosomes are examined for features such as size, drug content, shape stability, and release rate. Production optimization can increase traits such as uniform size or drug quantity.
2.2.1 Advantages of the coacervation technique
Controlled Particle Size: Produces phytosomes with a narrow size distribution, thus ensuring uniformity in drug delivery.
High Encapsulation Efficiency: Ensures efficient encapsulation of hydrophobic and amphiphilic phytoconstituents, owing to favorable interactions between lipids and active molecules [16].
Enhanced Stability: Protects bioactive phytoconstituents against degradation by environmental factors such as light, oxygen, and moisture.
Adaptability to Various Molecules: Suitable for incorporating a wide range of phytoconstituents, including flavonoids, alkaloids, and terpenoids.
Simplicity and Flexibility: Does not require expensive equipment, and can be optimized for various polymers, lipids, or crosslinkers to increase vesicle characteristics [17].
2.2.2 Disadvantages of the coacervation technique
Complex Process Parameters: Precise control of pH, temperature, and ionic. Strength is required to achieve coacervation, thus making the process challenging to optimize.
Low Yield: Certain formulations may display material loss during phase separation, thus decreasing overall yield.
Use of Organic Solvents: Like the solvent evaporation method, coacervation often requires organic solvents, which pose toxicity and environmental concerns [18].
Stability Issues in Wet Form: Wet coacervates may require additional stabilization or drying steps to prevent coalescence and maintain vesicular integrity.
Scalability Challenges: Although feasible at the laboratory scale, large-scale production can be challenging, owing to the need for precise control of critical parameters [19].
2.3 Supercritical fluid method
The solvent evaporation and coacervation methods are widely used for phytosome production. In contrast, the supercritical fluid method is a less frequently used yet promising method for producing highly pure and efficient phytosome formulations. This method is described below.
Supercritical fluid technology uses fluids such as carbon dioxide (CO2) as solvents to extract and encapsulate bioactive compounds from plant sources. In this process, the supercritical fluid is used to extract the desired plant compounds and also serves as a medium for phytosome formation.
Process: First, the plant material is exposed to supercritical CO2. This solvent extracts desired compounds and selectively removes them from the plant. Unwanted components are left behind. This extraction technique is highly precise. Next, the extracted compounds are mixed with phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine. The supercritical CO2 conditions promote interaction between compounds and phospholipids. The resulting complexes encapsulate the plant compounds within the phospholipid bilayer. These complexes are called phytosomes.
The supercritical fluid method shows promise for preparing phytosomes as high-purity mixtures that can be used by the body. Although costly tools and process changes might be necessary, the benefits of this method make are valuable in phytosome technology.
2.3.1 Advantages of the supercritical fluid method
The purity achieved is exceptional when supercritical CO2 is used as the solvent. Non-toxic CO2 evaporates readily and leaves no unwanted residue, thereby ensuring high purity in phytosome formulations.
Extraction is efficient, because of supercritical fluid extraction. Bioactive compounds are extracted with high selectivity, thus yielding extracts rich in the desired phytoconstituents.
Supercritical fluid-produced phytosomes have enhanced bioavailability. Phytoconstituents closely associate with phospholipids, and consequently increase their solubility and absorption.
Supercritical fluid-produced phytosomes exhibit enhanced bioavailability. The close association of phytoconstituents with phospholipids increases both solubility and absorption [10].
2.4 Solvent ether-injection process
This method entails mixing the aqueous part of plant extracts with fats dissolved in a chemical solvent. Phospholipids dissolvable in diethyl ether are slowly added dropwise to the aqueous part. This solution consists of plant components requiring encapsulation [10].
After solvent removal, tiny cell-like sacs are produced. This reason the plant additives to form a complex. The structure depends on the amount present. At lower levels, single-layered structures form. However, at higher concentrations, various shapes emerge, including spheres, cylinders, discs, cubes, or hexagonal sacs ( Figure 6 ) [15].
2.4.1 Advantages of the solvent ether-injection process
Simple and Inexpensive: The process does not require expensive equipment and is relatively cost-effective with respect to other methods.
Small Particle Size Formation: Phytosomes with a uniform and small particle size, which are ideal for enhanced bioavailability, are produced.
Mild Operating Conditions: The mild conditions preserve the integrity and activity of heat-sensitive phytoconstituents.
Efficient Lipid Mixing: Effective interaction between lipids and active compounds is ensured by the slow and controlled solvent injection.
Decreased Residual Solvent: Organic solvents such as diethyl ether are volatile and can be removed more efficiently, thereby minimizing residual solvent issues [10].
2.4.2 Disadvantages of the solvent ether-injection process
Toxicity of Organic Solvents: The use of diethyl ether or similar solvents poses toxicity risks and requires strict handling precautions.
Scalability Issues: Scaling up as difficult because of the need for precise control of the injection rate and solvent evaporation.
Inefficient for Highly Water-Soluble Phytoconstituents: Applicability to highly hydrophilic compounds, which might not interact efficiently with the lipids, is limited.
Batch Variability: Slight variations in injection speed, solvent concentration, or stirring conditions can lead to inconsistencies in particle size and encapsulation efficiency.
Environmental Concerns: The disposal of volatile organic solvents contributes to environmental pollution if not handled responsibly [15].
3. EVALUATION TECHNIQUES FOR PHYTOSOME FORMULATIONS
The efficacy of phytosome formulations can be assessed with numerous techniques. One frequently used technique is the analysis of the physicochemical properties of the phytosomes, including particle size, shape, and surface area [20]. These aspects can provide insight into stability and bioavailability. Additionally, researchers often conduct in vitro studies to evaluate drug release profiles and permeability across biological barriers [9].
In vivo research is also critical for pharmacokinetics knowledge and the efficacy of phytosome formulations. Superior imaging techniques such as electron microscopy and atomic pressure microscopy can provide distinct insights into the structure and morphology of phytosomes [21]. Overall, a combination of evaluation strategies is critical for optimizing phytosome formulations for maximizing efficacy [22].
3.1 Physicochemical characterization
Physicochemical characterization plays an important role in the analysis of phytosomes, to ensure quality, stability, and efficiency. The major biological properties considered in the study of phytosomes are discussed below [23].
3.1.1 Particle size and distribution
Determination of particle size and distribution is essential for understanding the physical characteristics of phytosomes [24, 25]. Techniques such as dynamic light scattering, laser diffraction, or microscopy can be used to measure the mean particle size, polydispersity index, and particle size distribution profile [26].
3.1.2 Zeta potentia
The zeta potential provides information about the surface charge of phytosomes, which affects their stability and colloidal behavior [27]. Measuring the zeta potential of phytosome dispersions with techniques such as electrophoretic light scattering aids in investigation of the stability and aggregation tendency of phytosome dispersions [28].
3.1.3 Encapsulation efficiency
Encapsulation efficiency refers to the percentage of bioactive compounds (phytoconstituents) encapsulated in a phytosome formulation, and is usually determined with analytical techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography or spectrophotometry [26, 27].
3.1.4 Morphology
Examination of the morphology and structure of phytosomes through techniques such as scanning electron microscopy or transmission electron microscopy provides insights into shape, surface characteristics, and integrity [29, 30].
3.1.5 Drug load
Drug load indicates the number of bioactive compounds that can be incorporated into the produced phytosomes. Its calculation depends on the dimensions of the incorporated phytoconstituents and the total weight of the phytosomes formed, and is important for dosing and efficiency [31].
3.1.6 Solubility and degradation profile
Examining the solubility and degradation profiles of phytosomes provides information on their ability to release bioactive compounds under physiological conditions. Methods such as dissolution testing and solubility studies help monitor the rate and extent of phytoconstituent release from phytosome formulations [32, 33].
3.1.7 Stability studies
Stability testing is necessary to assess the physicochemical stability of phytosomes under various storage conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity, or light). Rapid stability assays can be performed to evaluate the long-term stability and long-term storage of phytosome formulations [34, 35].
3.1.8 Biological interactions
Understanding the interactions of phytosomes with biological tissues (e.g., cell membranes) is essential to predict their behavior and efficacy in vivo. Techniques such as membrane permeation studies or molecular modeling can be used to investigate these interactions [23].
By comprehensively evaluating these physicochemical parameters, researchers and manufacturers can gain valuable insights into the characteristics and performance of phytosome formulations, thereby facilitating their development, optimization, and quality assurance.
3.2 In vitro and in vivo studies on phytosomes
Phytosomes have recently become very frequently used. These preparations have better absorption and effectiveness than regular herbal extracts [2]. Laboratory tests have indicated that phytosomes enter cells and move through them more effectively, thus increasing the uptake of plant compounds. These tests have also demonstrated that phytosomes can increase the stability and solubility of substances that are not easily dissolved [3]. Animal studies on phytosomes have provided key insights into their movement through the body and their final localization. Phytosomes have been found to achieve more favorable targeting of specific areas than free herbal extracts [36]. Moreover, studies have highlighted the safety profiles of phytosome formulations, and minimal toxicity has been reported in animal models. Overall, the growing body of evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies supports the promising potential of phytosomes to increase the delivery and therapeutic outcomes of herbal medicines [37].
3.3 Stability studies on phytosome formulations
Stability studies are conducted to determine the quality and shelf-life of phytosome formulations. In addition to other reasons, experiments are necessary because they reveal changes in chemical and physical properties that can impact the quality and safety of applications [9]. For instance, the examined factors affecting the stability of phytosome formulations include temperature, humidity, light exposure, and pH [8]. Stability tests provide insights into how to store formulations to maintain their integrity and prevent degradation. These aspects are critical to ensuring that the drug’s therapeutic efficacy is maintained during its shelf-life span [38] and can additionally aid in the development of protocols for drug storage and handling, to facilitate multiple pharmaceutical or cosmetic uses [9].
4. EMERGING APPLICATIONS OF PHYTOSOMES
Phytosomes are a new drug delivery system whose efficiency is being demonstrated in the field of nutraceuticals [39]. These lipid-based complexes enhance the absorption and targeting of specific cells or tissues associated with the botanical extracts [40]. In recent years, phytosomes have been used in various nutraceutical formulations. Furthermore, scientists are studying the potential of phytosomes to increase memory and cognition, protect liver health, and even regulate metabolic functions, among other applications [41]. Future studies and efforts might increase the use of phytosomes in the nutraceuticals industry for increasing human well-being.
4.1 Phytosomes in skin care products
Phytosomes are increasingly used in skin care products, because of their ability to enhance the delivery of bioactive compounds to the skin [42]. Phytosomes are plant-derived complexes composed of natural phospholipids and phytoconstituents, which increase the solubility and bioavailability of active ingredients [43]. When applied topically, phytosomes can penetrate the skin more effectively, thus leading to better absorption and increased efficacy of skincare products [44]. These innovative formulations have been shown to have a range of benefits for the skin, including increased hydration, decreased inflammation, and enhanced antioxidant protection [45]. As consumers become more conscious of the ingredients in their skincare products, phytosomes may offer a natural and effective solution to growing trends in the beauty industry [46].
4.2 Enhancing bioavailability
The quinoline alkaloids, such as evodiamine in Evodia rutaecarpa, have a wide range of pharmacological actions including anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antinociceptive, anti-obesity, and reproduction regulation abilities. Among all isoprenaline functions, bronchodilatation effects are the most valuable in COPD treatment. Evodiamine phytosomes demonstrate enhanced absorption, extended half-life, increased bioavailability, and a higher in vitro dissolution rate. An extended duration of action and increased bioavailability have been described as a consequence of the drug’s protracted release from phytosomes. Furthermore, by avoiding the liver and preventing the medication from coming into direct contact with enzymes involved in hepatic metabolism, these phytosomes might lessen the first-pass metabolism of evodiamine. Evodiamine’s bioavailability is 1772.35 μg h-1 L-1, whereas its half-life is 1.33 hours. The increased bioavailability and T1/2 with phytosomes is 3787.24 μg h-1 L-1 and 2.07 hours, respectively [7].
4.3 Cancer treatment
The chemical constituents of medicinal plants, such as their flavones, isoflavones, flavonoids, anthocyanins, coumarins, lignins, catechins, and isocatechins, frequently have antioxidant qualities that support their anticancer potential. Nevertheless, some plant-based substances have negative effects and are hazardous at high quantities. Numerous adverse effects, including myelosuppression and toxicity to the nervous system, heart, lungs, and kidneys, are associated with the currently accessible and costly traditional cancer therapies, such as radiation and chemotherapy, and substantially decrease quality of life. Medications made from plant compounds entrapped within bipolar moieties exhibit increased solubility, dispersibility, and permeability, and may serve as effective anti-cancer agents [25].
4.4 Wound healing
In 2016, Mazumder and colleagues investigated the potential of sinigrin, a prominent glucosinolate in Brassicaceae plants, to promote wound healing in both isolated and phytosome-based cultures of HaCaT cells. Whereas only 71% of the wound was healed when the phytoconstituent was used alone, the sinigrin–phytosome complex achieved 100% wound healing. Furthermore, in A-375 melanoma cells, sinigrin phytosomes exhibit enhanced anti-cancer activity [27].
5. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, phytosomes are a promising drug delivery system that can increase the bioavailability and efficacy of certain drugs. The development of new phytosome drug forms with high bioavailability and efficiency may be achieved either by finding new ways of encapsulating plant extracts or by adding more ingredients that ideally increase absorption. One current field of study is aimed at elucidating exactly how phytosomes work. Prior research might support the future clarification of the molecular pathways in tissues and cells after interaction with phytosomes, thus paving the way to finding solutions for various diseases. The study of the synergistic effects occurring when phytosomal formulations are combined with other plant extracts is another future direction in phytosome research. This approach could potentially open new roads to personalized approaches in medicine. Thus, the phytosome field has strong potential to advance understanding and increase the use of this unique delivery system.