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Journal of Pain Research (submit here)

This international, peer-reviewed Open Access journal by Dove Medical Press focuses on reporting of high-quality laboratory and clinical findings in all fields of pain research and the prevention and management of pain. Sign up for email alerts here.

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Sex differences in the relationship between maternal fear of pain and children’s conditioned pain modulation

Author(s): Subhadra Evans, Laura Seidman, Kirsten C Lung, Lonnie Zeltzer, Jennie Tsao

Publication date: 2013-03-20

Journal: Journal of Pain Research

Publisher: Dove Medical Press

Keywords: cold pressor, diffuse noxious inhibitory controls, laboratory pain, mother-child relationship, pediatric pain, pressure pain

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Abstract

Background Parental behaviors, emotions, and cognitions are known to influence children’s response to pain. However, prior work has not tested the association between maternal psychological factors and children’s responses to a conditioned pain modulation (CPM) task. CPM refers to the reduction in perceived pain intensity for a test stimulus following application of a conditioning stimulus to a remote area of the body, and is thought to reflect the descending inhibition of nociceptive signals. Methods The present study examined sex differences in the association between maternal anxiety about pain and children’s CPM responses in 133 healthy children aged 8–17 years. Maternal pain anxiety was assessed using the Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale-20. In addition to the magnitude of CPM, children’s anticipatory anxiety and pain-related fear of the CPM task were measured. Results Sequential multiple linear regression revealed that even after controlling for child age and general maternal psychological distress, greater maternal pain anxiety was significantly related to greater CPM anticipatory anxiety and pain-related fear in girls, and to less CPM (ie, less pain inhibition) in boys. Conclusion The findings indicate sex-specific relationships between maternal pain anxiety and children’s responses to a CPM task over and above that accounted for by the age of the child and the mother’s general psychological distress.

Most cited references 33

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Pain-related fear is more disabling than pain itself: evidence on the role of pain-related fear in chronic back pain disability.

G Crombez, J W Vlaeyen, P Heuts … (1999)

There is growing evidence for the idea that in back pain patients, pain-related fear (fear of pain/physical activity/(re)injury) may be more disabling than pain itself. A number of questionnaires have been developed to quantify pain-related fears, including the Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire (FABQ), the Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia (TSK), and the Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale (PASS). A total of 104 patients, presenting to a rehabilitation center or a comprehensive pain clinic with chronic low back pain were studied in three independent studies aimed at (1) replicating that pain-related fear is more disabling than pain itself (2) investigating the association between pain-related fear and poor behavioral performance and (3) investigating whether pain-related fear measures are better predictors of disability and behavioral performance than measures of general negative affect or general negative pain beliefs (e.g. pain catastrophizing). All three studies showed similar results. Highest correlations were found among the pain-related fear measures and measures of self-reported disability and behavioral performance. Even when controlling for sociodemographics, multiple regression analyses revealed that the subscales of the FABQ and the TSK were superior in predicting self-reported disability and poor behavioral performance. The PASS appeared more strongly associated with pain catastrophizing and negative affect, and was less predictive of pain disability and behavioral performance. Implications for chronic back pain assessment, prevention and treatment are discussed.

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The Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale: development and validation of a scale to measure fear of pain.

Revital Gross, Charles McCracken, C Zayfert (1992)

Fear of pain has been implicated in the development and maintenance of chronic pain behavior. Consistent with conceptualizations of anxiety as occurring within three response modes, this paper introduces an instrument to measure fear of pain across cognitive, overt behavioral, and physiological domains. The Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale (PASS) was administered to 104 consecutive referrals to a multidisciplinary pain clinic. The alpha coefficients were 0.94 for the total scale and ranged from 0.81 to 0.89 for the subscales. Validity was supported by significant correlations with measures of anxiety and disability. Regression analyses controlling for measures of emotional distress and pain showed that the PASS made a significant and unique contribution to the prediction of disability and interference due to pain. Evidence presented here supports the potential utility of the PASS in the continued study of fear of pain and its contribution to the development and maintenance of pain behaviors. Factor analysis and behavioral validation studies are in progress.

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Three new datasets supporting use of the Numerical Rating Scale (NRS-11) for children's self-reports of pain intensity.

Margery A. Connelly, Lara Spagrud, Eugene Choo … (2009)

Despite wide usage of the Numerical Rating Scale (NRS) for self-report of pain intensity in clinical practice with children and adolescents, validation data are lacking. We present here three datasets from studies in which the NRS was used together with another self-report scale. Study A compared post-operative pain ratings on the NRS with scores on the Faces Pain Scale-Revised (FPS-R) in 69 children age 7-17 years who had undergone a variety of surgical procedures. Study B compared post-operative pain ratings on the NRS with scores on the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) in 29 children age 9-17 years who had undergone pectus excavatum repair. Study C compared ratings of remembered immunization pain in 236 children who comprised an NRS group and a sex- and age-matched VAS group. Correlations of the NRS with the FPS-R and VAS were r=0.87 and 0.89 in Studies A and B, respectively. In Study C, the distributions of scores on the NRS and VAS were very similar except that scores closest to the no pain anchor were more likely to be selected on the VAS than the NRS. The NRS can be considered functionally equivalent to the VAS and FPS-R except for very mild pain (<1/10). We conclude that use of the NRS is tentatively supported for clinical practice with children of 8years and older, and we recommend further research on the lower age limit and on standardized age-appropriate anchors and instructions for this scale.