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      Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation

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          Abstract

          Human neuroimaging research on cognitive aging has brought significant advances to our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying age-related cognitive decline and successful aging. However, interpreting age-related changes and differences in brain structure, activation, and functional connectivity is an ongoing challenge. Ambiguous terminology is a major source of this challenge. For example, the terms ‘compensation,’ ‘maintenance,’ and ‘reserve’ are used in different ways and researchers disagree about the kinds of evidence or patterns of results required to interpret findings related to these concepts. As such inconsistencies can impede theoretical and empirical progress, we here aim to clarify these key terms and to propose consensual definitions of maintenance, reserve, and compensation.

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          Aging gracefully: compensatory brain activity in high-performing older adults.

          Roberto Cabeza, Nicole Anderson, Jill Locantore … (2002)
          Whereas some older adults show significant cognitive deficits, others perform as well as young adults. We investigated the neural basis of these different aging patterns using positron emission tomography (PET). In PET and functional MRI (fMRI) studies, prefrontal cortex (PFC) activity tends to be less asymmetric in older than in younger adults (Hemispheric Asymmetry Reduction in Old Adults or HAROLD). This change may help counteract age-related neurocognitive decline (compensation hypothesis) or it may reflect an age-related difficulty in recruiting specialized neural mechanisms (dedifferentiation hypothesis). To compare these two hypotheses, we measured PFC activity in younger adults, low-performing older adults, and high-performing older adults during recall and source memory of recently studied words. Compared to recall, source memory was associated with right PFC activations in younger adults. Low-performing older adults recruited similar right PFC regions as young adults, but high-performing older adults engaged PFC regions bilaterally. Thus, consistent with the compensation hypothesis and inconsistent with the dedifferentiation hypothesis, a hemispheric asymmetry reduction was found in high-performing but not in low-performing older adults. The results suggest that low-performing older adults recruited a similar network as young adults but used it inefficiently, whereas high-performing older adults counteracted age-related neural decline through a plastic reorganization of neurocognitive networks.
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            The cognitive neuroscience of ageing.

            Cheryl Grady (2012)
            The availability of neuroimaging technology has spurred a marked increase in the human cognitive neuroscience literature, including the study of cognitive ageing. Although there is a growing consensus that the ageing brain retains considerable plasticity of function, currently measured primarily by means of functional MRI, it is less clear how age differences in brain activity relate to cognitive performance. The field is also hampered by the complexity of the ageing process itself and the large number of factors that are influenced by age. In this Review, current trends and unresolved issues in the cognitive neuroscience of ageing are discussed.
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              Imaging Cognition II: An Empirical Review of 275 PET and fMRI Studies

              Roberto Cabeza, Lars Nyberg (2000)
              Positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have been extensively used to explore the functional neuroanatomy of cognitive functions. Here we review 275 PET and fMRI studies of attention (sustained, selective, Stroop, orientation, divided), perception (object, face, space/motion, smell), imagery (object, space/motion), language (written/spoken word recognition, spoken/no spoken response), working memory (verbal/numeric, object, spatial, problem solving), semantic memory retrieval (categorization, generation), episodic memory encoding (verbal, object, spatial), episodic memory retrieval (verbal, nonverbal, success, effort, mode, context), priming (perceptual, conceptual), and procedural memory (conditioning, motor, and nonmotor skill learning). To identify consistent activation patterns associated with these cognitive operations, data from 412 contrasts were summarized at the level of cortical Brodmann's areas, insula, thalamus, medial-temporal lobe (including hippocampus), basal ganglia, and cerebellum. For perception and imagery, activation patterns included primary and secondary regions in the dorsal and ventral pathways. For attention and working memory, activations were usually found in prefrontal and parietal regions. For language and semantic memory retrieval, typical regions included left prefrontal and temporal regions. For episodic memory encoding, consistently activated regions included left prefrontal and medial temporal regions. For episodic memory retrieval, activation patterns included prefrontal, medial temporal, and posterior midline regions. For priming, deactivations in prefrontal (conceptual) or extrastriate (perceptual) regions were consistently seen. For procedural memory, activations were found in motor as well as in non-motor brain areas. Analysis of regional activations across cognitive domains suggested that several brain regions, including the cerebellum, are engaged by a variety of cognitive challenges. These observations are discussed in relation to functional specialization as well as functional integration.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Roberto Cabeza
                Marilyn Albert
                Sylvie Belleville
                Fergus Craik
                Audrey Duarte
                Cheryl Grady
                Ulman Lindenberger
                Lars Nyberg
                Denise Park
                Patricia A. Reuter-Lorenz
                Michael D. Rugg
                Jason Steffener
                M. Natasha Rajah
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-journal-id): 100962781
                Journal ID (pubmed-jr-id): 22270
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Nat Rev Neurosci
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Nat. Rev. Neurosci.
                Title: Nature reviews. Neuroscience
                ISSN (Print): 1471-003X
                ISSN (Electronic): 1471-0048
                Publication date Nihms-submitted: 10 April 2019
                Publication date (Print): November 2018
                Publication date PMC-release: 01 November 2019
                Volume: 19
                Issue: 11
                Pages: 701-710
                Affiliations
                Duke University
                John Hopkins University
                University of Montreal
                Baycrest Centre and University of Toronto
                Georgia Tech
                Baycrest Centre and University of Toronto
                Max Planck Institute for Human Development
                Umea University, Sweden
                University of Texas, Dallas
                University of Michigan
                University of Texas, Dallas
                University of Ottawa
                McGill University
                Author notes
                Corresponding author: Roberto Cabeza, Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, LSRC Bldg, Room 243F, Durham, NC 27708
                Article
                Accession ID: PMC6472256 Pmcid ID: PMC6472256 Pmc-uid ID: 6472256 Manuscript ID: nihpa1019488
                DOI: 10.1038/s41583-018-0068-2
                PMC ID: 6472256
                PubMed ID: 30305711
                SO-VID: 0ad14d3c-09bf-4488-875a-35cb7fc7a9bd
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