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      Identification of New Respiratory Viruses in the New Millennium

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          Abstract

          The rapid advancement of molecular tools in the past 15 years has allowed for the retrospective discovery of several new respiratory viruses as well as the characterization of novel emergent strains. The inability to characterize the etiological origins of respiratory conditions, particularly in children, led several researchers to pursue the discovery of the underlying etiology of disease. In 2001, this led to the discovery of human metapneumovirus (hMPV) and soon following that the outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) promoted an increased interest in coronavirology and the latter discovery of human coronavirus (HCoV) NL63 and HCoV-HKU1. Human bocavirus, with its four separate lineages, discovered in 2005, has been linked to acute respiratory tract infections and gastrointestinal complications. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) represents the most recent outbreak of a completely novel respiratory virus, which occurred in Saudi Arabia in 2012 and presents a significant threat to human health. This review will detail the most current clinical and epidemiological findings to all respiratory viruses discovered since 2001.

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          Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia.

          Theo M. Bestebroer, Albert Osterhaus, Sander van Boheemen … (2012)
          A previously unknown coronavirus was isolated from the sputum of a 60-year-old man who presented with acute pneumonia and subsequent renal failure with a fatal outcome in Saudi Arabia. The virus (called HCoV-EMC) replicated readily in cell culture, producing cytopathic effects of rounding, detachment, and syncytium formation. The virus represents a novel betacoronavirus species. The closest known relatives are bat coronaviruses HKU4 and HKU5. Here, the clinical data, virus isolation, and molecular identification are presented. The clinical picture was remarkably similar to that of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak in 2003 and reminds us that animal coronaviruses can cause severe disease in humans.
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            Identification of a Novel Coronavirus in Patients with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome

            Christian Drosten, Stephan Günther, Wolfgang Preiser … (2003)
            The severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) has recently been identified as a new clinical entity. SARS is thought to be caused by an unknown infectious agent. Clinical specimens from patients with SARS were searched for unknown viruses with the use of cell cultures and molecular techniques. A novel coronavirus was identified in patients with SARS. The virus was isolated in cell culture, and a sequence 300 nucleotides in length was obtained by a polymerase-chain-reaction (PCR)-based random-amplification procedure. Genetic characterization indicated that the virus is only distantly related to known coronaviruses (identical in 50 to 60 percent of the nucleotide sequence). On the basis of the obtained sequence, conventional and real-time PCR assays for specific and sensitive detection of the novel virus were established. Virus was detected in a variety of clinical specimens from patients with SARS but not in controls. High concentrations of viral RNA of up to 100 million molecules per milliliter were found in sputum. Viral RNA was also detected at extremely low concentrations in plasma during the acute phase and in feces during the late convalescent phase. Infected patients showed seroconversion on the Vero cells in which the virus was isolated. The novel coronavirus might have a role in causing SARS. Copyright 2003 Massachusetts Medical Society
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              A novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome.

              Thomas G Ksiazek, Dean Erdman, Cynthia Goldsmith … (2003)
              A worldwide outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) has been associated with exposures originating from a single ill health care worker from Guangdong Province, China. We conducted studies to identify the etiologic agent of this outbreak. We received clinical specimens from patients in seven countries and tested them, using virus-isolation techniques, electron-microscopical and histologic studies, and molecular and serologic assays, in an attempt to identify a wide range of potential pathogens. None of the previously described respiratory pathogens were consistently identified. However, a novel coronavirus was isolated from patients who met the case definition of SARS. Cytopathological features were noted in Vero E6 cells inoculated with a throat-swab specimen. Electron-microscopical examination revealed ultrastructural features characteristic of coronaviruses. Immunohistochemical and immunofluorescence staining revealed reactivity with group I coronavirus polyclonal antibodies. Consensus coronavirus primers designed to amplify a fragment of the polymerase gene by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) were used to obtain a sequence that clearly identified the isolate as a unique coronavirus only distantly related to previously sequenced coronaviruses. With specific diagnostic RT-PCR primers we identified several identical nucleotide sequences in 12 patients from several locations, a finding consistent with a point-source outbreak. Indirect fluorescence antibody tests and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays made with the new isolate have been used to demonstrate a virus-specific serologic response. This virus may never before have circulated in the U.S. population. A novel coronavirus is associated with this outbreak, and the evidence indicates that this virus has an etiologic role in SARS. Because of the death of Dr. Carlo Urbani, we propose that our first isolate be named the Urbani strain of SARS-associated coronavirus. Copyright 2003 Massachusetts Medical Society
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Eric O. Freed: Role: Academic Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Viruses
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Viruses
                Journal ID (publisher-id): viruses
                Title: Viruses
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 1999-4915
                Publication date (Electronic): 06 March 2015
                Publication date Collection: March 2015
                Volume: 7
                Issue: 3
                Pages: 996-1019
                Affiliations
                [1 ]South African National Bioinformatics Institute, University of the Western Cape, Western Cape 7535, South Africa; E-Mails: michael@ 123456sanbi.ac.za (M.B.); junaid@ 123456sanbi.ac.za (J.G.)
                [2 ]Molecular Biology and Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical BioSciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of the Western Cape, Western Cape 7535, South Africa
                Author notes
                [* ]Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: bfielding@ 123456uwc.ac.za ; Tel.: +27-21-959-3620; Fax: +27-21-959-3125.
                Article
                Publisher ID: viruses-07-00996
                DOI: 10.3390/v7030996
                PMC ID: 4379558
                PubMed ID: 25757061
                SO-VID: 06660c9e-a353-4c9f-8aa8-f6e2aadf3a65
                Copyright © © 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
                License:

                This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 11 December 2014
                Date accepted : 26 February 2015
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Microbiology & Virology
                Keywords: respiratory viruses,human coronaviruses,hmpv,bocavirus,sars-cov,mers.
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Microbiology & Virology
                Keywords: respiratory viruses, human coronaviruses, hmpv, bocavirus, sars-cov, mers.

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