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      Gaining a better understanding of respiratory health inequalities among cities: An ecological case study on elderly males in the larger French cities

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          Abstract

          Background

          In recent years, there have been a growing number of studies on spatial inequalities in health covering a variety of scales, from small areas to metropolitan areas or regions, and for various health outcomes. However, few investigations have compared health status between cities with a view to gaining a better understanding of the relationships between such inequalities and the social, economic and physical characteristics. This paper focuses on disparities in respiratory health among the 55 largest French cities. The aim is to explore the relationships between inter-urban health patterns, city characteristics and regional context, and to determine how far a city’s health status relates to the features observed on different geographical scales.

          Methods

          We used health data describing hospitalizations for Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) as a proxy for respiratory health, and the total number of hospitalizations (overall) as a proxy for general health. This last indicator was used as a benchmark. A large set of indicators relating to socioeconomic, physical and amenity aspects of the cities (urban units) was also constructed. Data were analyzed using linear correlations and multiple linear regression models.

          Results

          The results suggest that socioeconomic characteristics are major discriminators for inequalities in respiratory health status among urban units. Indeed, once combined to socioeconomic characteristics, only a climate indicator remained significant among the physical indicators. It appeared that the pollution indicators which were significantly correlated with COPD hospitalization rates loosed significance when associated to the socio-economic indicators in a multiple regression. The analysis showed that among the socio-economic indicators, an employment indicator derived at the regional scale, and two indicators reflecting the unequal intra-urban spatial distribution of population according to their education, were the most efficient to describe differences in the respiratory health status of urban units.

          Conclusion

          In order to design effective urban policies, it is essential to gain a better understanding of the differences among cities in their entirety, rather than solely differences across small urban areas or individuals.

          Translated abstract

          Resume
          Contexte

          Un nombre croissant d’études sur les inégalités spatiales de santé, conduites à des échelons très différents, des quartiers aux aires métropolitaines ou aux régions a été publié au cours des années récentes. Ces études couvrent des pathologies variées. Peu d’études ont cependant adopté une approche comparative et ont eu pour ambition d’expliquer les différences interurbaines de santé en mobilisant à la fois des indicateurs sociaux, économiques et physiques. Cet article propose une étude de cas sur les disparités interurbaines de santé respiratoires parmi les 55 plus grandes villes françaises. L’objectif ici est d’explorer les relations entre les différenciations interurbaines de santé et les caractéristiques des villes, en tenant compte de ces caractéristiques à différents échelons (ville, région, quartier).

          Méthodes

          Nous avons mobilisé une information sur les hospitalisations pour Broncho Pneumopathie Chronique Obstructive (BPCO) pour approcher la situation respiratoire des villes et sur l’ensemble des hospitalisations pour approcher la situation de santé générale de ces mêmes villes. Un grand nombre d’indicateurs socio-économiques, d’indicateurs décrivant l’environnement physique et les équipements de soins ont été construits pour décrire les villes. L’information a été analysée en utilisant des régressions linéaires simples et multiples.

          Résultats

          Les résultats suggèrent que les caractéristiques socio-économiques sont des facteurs majeurs de différenciation entre les villes du point de vue des situations de santé. Combinées aux indicateurs socio-économiques, seul l’indicateur des températures de janvier reste significatif. Les indicateurs de pollution, qui sont significativement associés aux taux d’hospitalisation pour BPCO, perdent de leur pouvoir explicatif lorsqu’ils sont associés aux indicateurs socio-économiques dans la régression multiple. Les résultats montrent que parmi les indicateurs économiques, le niveau de chômage régional s’associe à des indicateurs reflétant l’inégale répartition des populations, selon leur niveau d’éducation, à l’intérieur de la ville pour décrire de manière efficace les différences interurbaines de santé respiratoire.

          Conclusion

          Afin de mieux réfléchir aux politiques de santé, il paraît important de s’intéresser aussi aux aspects collectifs des différences interurbaines de santé et pas uniquement aux différences entre individus.

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          Most cited references51

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          Uses of ecologic analysis in epidemiologic research.

          Despite the widespread use of ecologic analysis in epidemiologic research and health planning, little attention has been given by health scientists and practitioners to the methodological aspects of this approach. This paper reviews the major types of ecologic study designs, the analytic methods appropriate for each, the limitations of ecologic data for making causal inferences and what can be done to minimize these problems, and the relative advantages of ecologic analysis. Numerous examples are provided to illustrate the important principles and methods. A careful distinction is made between ecologic studies that generate or test etiologic hypotheses and those that evaluate the impact of intervention programs or policies (given adequate knowledge of disease etiology). Failure to recognize this difference in the conduct of ecologic studies can lead to results that are not very informative or that are misinterpreted by others.
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            The problems of relative deprivation: why some societies do better than others.

            In this paper, we present evidence which suggests that key processes of social status differentiation, affecting health and numerous other social outcomes, take place at the societal level. Understanding them seems likely to involve analyses and comparisons of whole societies. Using income inequality as an indicator and determinant of the scale of socioeconomic stratification in a society, we show that many problems associated with relative deprivation are more prevalent in more unequal societies. We summarise previously published evidence suggesting that this may be true of morbidity and mortality, obesity, teenage birth rates, mental illness, homicide, low trust, low social capital, hostility, and racism. To these we add new analyses which suggest that this is also true of poor educational performance among school children, the proportion of the population imprisoned, drug overdose mortality and low social mobility. That ill health and a wide range of other social problems associated with social status within societies are also more common in more unequal societies, may imply that income inequality is central to the creation of the apparently deep-seated social problems associated with poverty, relative deprivation or low social status. We suggest that the degree of material inequality in a society may not only be central to the social forces involved in national patterns of social stratification, but also that many of the problems related to low social status may be amenable to changes in income distribution. If the prevalence of these problems varies so much from society to society according to differences in income distribution, it suggests that the familiar social gradients in health and other outcomes are unlikely to result from social mobility sorting people merely by prior characteristics. Instead, the picture suggests that their frequency in a population is affected by the scale of social stratification that differs substantially from one society to another.
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              Prevalence of COPD in five Colombian cities situated at low, medium, and high altitude (PREPOCOL study).

              The prevalence of COPD in Colombia is unknown. This study aimed to investigate COPD prevalence in five Colombian cities and measure the association between COPD and altitude. A cross-sectional design and a random, multistage, cluster-sampling strategy were used to provide representative samples of adults aged >or= 40 years. Each participant was interviewed (validated Spanish version of the Ferris Respiratory Questionnaire) and performed spirometry before and after 200 microg of inhaled salbutamol, using a portable spirometer according to American Thoracic Society recommendations. COPD definitions were as follows: (1) spirometric: fixed ratio (primary definition): FEV1/FVC or= 3 months every year during >or= 2 consecutive years (chronic bronchitis). Analysis was performed using statistical software. A total of 5,539 orsubjects were included. The overall COPD prevalence using the primary definition (spirometric) was 8.9%, ranging from 6.2% in Barranquilla to 13.5% in Medellín. The prevalence measured by the spirometric definition was higher than medical (2.8%) and clinical (3.2%) definitions. After the logistic regression analysis, the factors related with COPD were age >or= 60 years, male gender, history of tuberculosis, smoking, wood smoke exposure >or= 10 years, and very low education level. There was a nonsignificant tendency toward larger prevalence with higher altitude. COPD is an important health burden in Colombia. Additional studies are needed to establish the real influence of altitude on COPD prevalence.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Int J Health Geogr
                Int J Health Geogr
                International Journal of Health Geographics
                BioMed Central
                1476-072X
                2013
                10 April 2013
                : 12
                : 19
                Affiliations
                [1 ]UMR Environnement Ville Société, Université de Lyon, Faculté GHHAT, 5 avenue Pierre Mendès-France, Bron Cedex 69676, France
                [2 ]UMR Géographie-cités, CNRS, Universités Paris I Sorbonne, Paris VII Diderot, 13 rue du Four, Paris 75006, France
                Article
                1476-072X-12-19
                10.1186/1476-072X-12-19
                3735046
                23575258
                12ef3ab2-596b-4446-bc8e-bbfb599504d9
                Copyright ©2013 Aschan-Leygonie et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 21 November 2012
                : 2 April 2013
                Categories
                Research

                Public health
                respiratory health,chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,cities,socioeconomic characteristics,air pollution,physical characteristics,regional context,intra-urban organization,scale,france

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