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      Bilingualism and working memory performance: Evidence from a large-scale online study

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          Abstract

          The bilingual executive advantage (BEA) hypothesis has attracted considerable research interest, but the findings are inconclusive. We addressed this issue in the domain of working memory (WM), as more complex WM tasks have been underrepresented in the previous literature. First, we compared early and late bilingual vs. monolingual WM performance. Second, we examined whether certain aspects of bilingual experience, such as language switching frequency, are related to bilinguals’ WM scores. Our online sample included 485 participants. They filled in an extensive questionnaire including background factors such as bilingualism and second language (L2) use, and performed 10 isomorphic verbal and visuospatial WM tasks that yielded three WM composite scores (visuospatial WM, verbal WM, n-back). For verbal and visuospatial WM composites, the group comparisons did not support the BEA hypothesis. N-back analysis showed an advantage of late bilinguals over monolinguals and early bilinguals, while the latter two groups did not differ. This between-groups analysis was followed by a regression analysis relating features of bilingual experience to n-back performance, but the results were non-significant in both bilingual groups. In sum, group differences supporting the BEA hypothesis were limited only to the n-back composite, and this composite was not predicted by bilingualism-related features. Moreover, Bayesian analyses did not give consistent support for the BEA hypothesis. Possible reasons for the failure to find support for the BEA hypothesis are discussed.

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          MatchIt: Nonparametric Preprocessing for Parametric Causal Inference

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            Socioeconomic status and the developing brain.

            Childhood socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with cognitive achievement throughout life. How does SES relate to brain development, and what are the mechanisms by which SES might exert its influence? We review studies in which behavioral, electrophysiological and neuroimaging methods have been used to characterize SES disparities in neurocognitive function. These studies indicate that SES is an important predictor of neurocognitive performance, particularly of language and executive function, and that SES differences are found in neural processing even when performance levels are equal. Implications for basic cognitive neuroscience and for understanding and ameliorating the problems related to childhood poverty are discussed.
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              Matching Methods for Causal Inference: A Review and a Look Forward

              (2010)
              When estimating causal effects using observational data, it is desirable to replicate a randomized experiment as closely as possible by obtaining treated and control groups with similar covariate distributions. This goal can often be achieved by choosing well-matched samples of the original treated and control groups, thereby reducing bias due to the covariates. Since the 1970s, work on matching methods has examined how to best choose treated and control subjects for comparison. Matching methods are gaining popularity in fields such as economics, epidemiology, medicine and political science. However, until now the literature and related advice has been scattered across disciplines. Researchers who are interested in using matching methods---or developing methods related to matching---do not have a single place to turn to learn about past and current research. This paper provides a structure for thinking about matching methods and guidance on their use, coalescing the existing research (both old and new) and providing a summary of where the literature on matching methods is now and where it should be headed.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: MethodologyRole: SoftwareRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                2 November 2018
                2018
                : 13
                : 11
                : e0205916
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
                [2 ] Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
                [3 ] MultiLing Center for Multilingualism in Society across the Lifespan, Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian studies, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
                [4 ] Turku Brain and Mind Center, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
                University of St Andrews, UNITED KINGDOM
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0934-5684
                Article
                PONE-D-18-12327
                10.1371/journal.pone.0205916
                6214526
                30388118
                2460b3bf-fdf1-4a38-bd1e-9ce6937d9fed
                © 2018 Lukasik et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 24 April 2018
                : 3 October 2018
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 5, Pages: 16
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002341, Academy of Finland;
                Award ID: 260276
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: Abo Akademi University Endowment
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002341, Academy of Finland;
                Award ID: 288880
                Award Recipient :
                Matti Laine is supported by the Academy of Finland (grant #260276) and the Åbo Akademi University Endowment (the BrainTrain project). Minna Lehtonen is supported by Academy of Finland (grant #288880). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
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