Right on track? Performance of satellite telemetry in terrestrial wildlife research

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Abstract

Satellite telemetry is an increasingly utilized technology in wildlife research, and current devices can track individual animal movements at unprecedented spatial and temporal resolutions. However, as we enter the golden age of satellite telemetry, we need an in-depth understanding of the main technological, species-specific and environmental factors that determine the success and failure of satellite tracking devices across species and habitats. Here, we assess the relative influence of such factors on the ability of satellite telemetry units to provide the expected amount and quality of data by analyzing data from over 3,000 devices deployed on 62 terrestrial species in 167 projects worldwide. We evaluate the success rate in obtaining GPS fixes as well as in transferring these fixes to the user and we evaluate failure rates. Average fix success and data transfer rates were high and were generally better predicted by species and unit characteristics, while environmental characteristics influenced the variability of performance. However, 48% of the unit deployments ended prematurely, half of them due to technical failure. Nonetheless, this study shows that the performance of satellite telemetry applications has shown improvements over time, and based on our findings, we provide further recommendations for both users and manufacturers.

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Author and article information

Contributors

M. P. G. Hofman:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5702-4359

Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing

M. W. Hayward: Role: ConceptualizationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing

M. Heim: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

P. Marchand: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

C. M. Rolandsen: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

J. Mattisson:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6032-5307

Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

F. Urbano: Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

M. Heurich: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

A. Mysterud: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

J. Melzheimer: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

N. Morellet: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

U. Voigt:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9505-4612

Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

B. L. Allen: Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

B. Gehr:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1044-9296

Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

C. Rouco:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1026-3253

Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

W. Ullmann: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

Ø. Holand: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

N. H. Jørgensen: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

G. Steinheim: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

F. Cagnacci: Role: ConceptualizationRole: Investigation

M. Kroeschel: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

P. Kaczensky: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

B. Buuveibaatar: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

J. C. Payne: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

I. Palmegiani: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

K. Jerina: Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

P. Kjellander: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

Ö. Johansson: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

S. LaPoint: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

R. Bayrakcismith: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

J. D. C. Linnell: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

M. Zaccaroni: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

M. L. S. Jorge: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

J. E. F. Oshima:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1545-768X

Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

A. Songhurst: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

C. Fischer: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

R. T. Mc Bride Jr.: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

J. J. Thompson: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

S. Streif: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

R. Sandfort: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

C. Bonenfant:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9924-419X

Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

M. Drouilly: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

M. Klapproth: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

D. Zinner:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3967-8014

Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

R. Yarnell:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6584-7374

Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

A. Stronza: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

L. Wilmott: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

E. Meisingset: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

M. Thaker:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6019-2639

Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

A. T. Vanak: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

S. Nicoloso: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

R. Graeber: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

S. Said: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

M. R. Boudreau: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

A. Devlin: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

R. Hoogesteijn: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

J. A. May-Junior: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

J. C. Nifong: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

J. Odden: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

H. B. Quigley: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

F. Tortato: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

D. M. Parker: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

A. Caso: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

J. Perrine: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

C. Tellaeche: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

F. Zieba: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

T. Zwijacz-Kozica: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

C. L. Appel: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

I. Axsom: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

W. T. Bean: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

B. Cristescu: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

S. Périquet: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

K. J. Teichman: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

S. Karpanty: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

A. Licoppe: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

V. Menges: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

K. Black: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

T. L. Scheppers:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5098-9326

Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

S. C. Schai-Braun: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

F. C. Azevedo: Role: Data curationRole: Writing – review & editing

F. G. Lemos: Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

A. Payne: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

L. H. Swanepoel: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

B. V. Weckworth: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

A. Berger: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

A. Bertassoni:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4806-579X

Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

G. McCulloch: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

P. Šustr: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

V. Athreya: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

D. Bockmuhl: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

J. Casaer: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

A. Ekori: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

D. Melovski: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

C. Richard-Hansen: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

D. van de Vyver: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

R. Reyna-Hurtado: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

E. Robardet: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

N. Selva: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

A. Sergiel: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

M. S. Farhadinia: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

P. Sunde: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

R. Portas: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

H. Ambarli:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4336-9417

Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

R. Berzins: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

P. M. Kappeler: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

G. K. Mann: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

L. Pyritz: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

C. Bissett: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

T. Grant: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

R. Steinmetz: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

L. Swedell:

ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6909-2669

Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

R. J. Welch: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

D. Armenteras: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

O. R. Bidder: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

T. M. González: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

A. Rosenblatt: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing

S. Kachel: Role: Data curationRole: Investigation

N. Balkenhol: Role: ConceptualizationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing

Antoni Margalida: Role: Editor

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): PLoS One

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): PLoS ONE

Journal ID (publisher-id): plos

Journal ID (pmc): plosone

Title: PLoS ONE

Publisher: Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )

ISSN (Electronic): 1932-6203

Publication date (Electronic): 9 May 2019

Publication date Collection: 2019

Volume: 14

Issue: 5

Electronic Location Identifier: e0216223

Affiliations

[1 ] Wildlife Sciences, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany

[2 ] School of Environment, Natural Resources and Geography, Bangor University, Bangor, United Kingdom

[3 ] Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

[4 ] Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Trondheim, Norway

[5 ] Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, Direction de la Recherche et de l'Expertise, Unité Ongulés Sauvages, Juvignac, France

[6 ] LECA, CNRS, Université Savoie Mont Blanc, Université Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France

[7 ] Freelance consultant, Milan, Italy

[8 ] Wildlife Ecology and Management, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany

[9 ] Department of Conservation and Research, Bavarian Forest National Park, Grafenau, Germany

[10 ] Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

[11 ] Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Berlin, Germany

[12 ] CEFS, Université de Toulouse, INRA, Castanet-Tolosan, France

[13 ] Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany

[14 ] University of Southern Queensland, Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia

[15 ] Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

[16 ] Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, UMR 5175, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Montpellier, France

[17 ] Department of Wildlife Ecology and Management, Landcare Research, Dunedin, New Zealand

[18 ] Department of Zoology, Facultad de Ciencias de la Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain

[19 ] University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

[20 ] Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), Müncheberg, Germany

[21 ] Department of Animal and Aquacultural Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway

[22 ] Department of Biodiversity and Molecular Ecology, Fondazione Edmund Mach, San Michele all'Adige, Italy

[23 ] Forest Research Institute of Baden-Wuerttemberg, Freiburg, Germany

[24 ] Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria

[25 ] Wildlife Conservation Society, Mongolia Program, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

[26 ] University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department for Forestry, Ljubljana, Slovenia

[27 ] Grimsö Wildlife Research Station, Department of Ecology, Swedish University for Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Riddarhyttan, Sweden

[28 ] Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, United States of America

[29 ] Department of Migration and Immuno-ecology, Max-Planck Institute for Ornithology, Radolfzell, Germany

[30 ] Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, Palisades, New York, United States of America

[31 ] Panthera, New York, NY, United States of America

[32 ] Department of Biology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

[33 ] Vanderbilt University, Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, Nashville, TN, United States of America

[34 ] Programa de Pós-Graduação em Zoologia, Laboratório de Ecologia Espacial e Conservação, Instituto de Biociências, Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Rio Claro, Brasil

[35 ] Ecoexist, Maun, Botswana

[36 ] University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom

[37 ] Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America

[38 ] Haute ecole du paysage, d'ingenierie et d'architecture de Geneve, Genève, Switzerland

[39 ] Faro Maro Ecoresearch, Departamento de Boquerón, Paraguay

[40 ] Guyra Paraguay—CONACYT, Asunción, Paraguay

[41 ] Instituto Saite, Asunción, Paraguay

[42 ] The Ronin Institute, Montclair, NJ, United States of America

[43 ] Institute of Wildlife Biology and Game Management, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

[44 ] Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Lyon, France

[45 ] Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Évolutive, UMR CNRS 5558, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Villeurbanne cedex, France

[46 ] Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa

[47 ] Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center (DPZ), Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany

[48 ] School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Brackenhurst Campus, Southwell, United Kingdom

[49 ] Office of Environment and Heritage, Wollongong, NSW, Australia

[50 ] Division of Forestry and Forest Resources, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Ås, Norway

[51 ] Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India

[52 ] Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, New Dehli, India

[53 ] Wellcome Trust/DBT India Alliance, Hyderabad, India

[54 ] School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa

[55 ] D.R.E.Am. Italia, Pratovecchio Stia, Italy

[56 ] Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, Unités Ongulés Sauvages, Birieux, France

[57 ] Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada

[58 ] SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY, United States of America

[59 ] University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil

[60 ] Onçafari, Pinheiros -São Paulo, Brazil

[61 ] Wetlands and Coastal Ecology Branch, US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Environmental Laboratory, Vicksburg, MS, United States of America

[62 ] Wildlife and Reserve Management Research Group, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

[63 ] School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Nelspruit, South Africa

[64 ] Ministery of Environment and Natural Resources of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico

[65 ] Alianza Nacional Para la Conservacion del Jaguar, A.C. Mexico, Mexico

[66 ] Biological Sciences Department, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, California, United States of America

[67 ] Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Jujuy–CONICET, San Salvador de Jujuy, Argentina

[68 ] Tatra National Park, Zakopane, Poland

[69 ] Humboldt State University, Arcata, California, United States of America

[70 ] The Cape Leopard Trust, South Africa, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa

[71 ] Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique HERD Program Hwange LTER, Main Camp Research, Hwange National Park, Hwange, Zimbabwe

[72 ] University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

[73 ] Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States of America

[74 ] Département d'étude du milieu naturel et agricole, Service public de Wallonie, Gembloux, Belgium

[75 ] Research Institute for Nature and Forest, Brussels, Belgium

[76 ] Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Instituto de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Goiás/Regional Catalão (UFG), Catalão, Goiás, Brazil

[77 ] Programa de Conservação Mamíferos do Cerrado (PCMC), Fazenda Limoeiro, Cumari, Goiás, Brazil

[78 ] Department of Zoology, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa

[79 ] Instituto de Pesquisa e Conservação de Tamanduás no Brasil, Parnaíba, Piauí, Brazil

[80 ] Global Change Research Institute CAS, Department of Biodiversity Research, Brno, Czech Republic

[81 ] Wildlife Conservation Society—India, Bangalore, Karnataka, India

[82 ] University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Western Switzerland, Delémont, Switzerland

[83 ] Macedonian Ecological Society, Skopje, Macedonia

[84 ] Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, Kourou, France

[85 ] UMR EcoFoG (AgroParisTech, Cirad, CNRS, INRA, Université des Antilles, Université de Guyane), Kourou, French Guiana

[86 ] Departamento de Conservación de la Biodiversidad, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Campeche, Mexico

[87 ] Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire de l'Alimentation, de l'Environnement et du Travail | ANSES · Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, Nancy, France

[88 ] Institute of Nature Conservation, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland

[89 ] Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom

[90 ] Department of Bioscience—Wildlife Ecology, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

[91 ] Department of Wildlife Ecology and Management, Faculty of Forestry, Duzce University, Düzce, Turkey

[92 ] Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center (DPZ), Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany

[93 ] University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany

[94 ] Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

[95 ] Courant Research Centre “Evolution of Social Behaviour”, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany

[96 ] WWF Thailand, Bangkok, Thailand

[97 ] Queens College, City University of New York, New York, NY, United States of America

[98 ] University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

[99 ] Grupo de Investigación en Ecología del Paisaje y Modelación de Ecosistemas-ECOLMOD, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia

[100 ] Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America

[101 ] University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL, United States of America

[102 ] School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America

University of Lleida, SPAIN

Author notes

Competing Interests: I have read the journal's policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: SN is employed by D.R.E.Am. Italia. JAM received funding from Bank of America, SCS from CIC Schweiz, FCA and FGL from Consórcio Capim Branco de Energia, and PK, BB, JCP from Sustainability East Asia LLC and Oyu Tolgoi mine. There are no patents, products in development or marketed products to declare. This does not alter our adherence to all the PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

[¤a]

Current address: School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia.

[¤b]

Current address: Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Trondheim, Norway.

[¤c]

Current address: Black Rock Forest, Cornwall, New York, United States of America

[¤d]

Current address: School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Nelspruit, South Africa.

[¤e]

Current address: Sequoia Riverlands Trust, Visalia, California, United States of America.

[¤f]

Current address: Ongava Research Centre, Outjo, Namibia.

[¤g]

Current address: Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa

[¤h]

Current address: South African National Parks, Scientific Services, Kimberley, South Africa

* E-mail: mpghofman@ 123456gmail.com

Author information

M. P. G. Hofman http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5702-4359

J. Mattisson http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6032-5307

U. Voigt http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9505-4612

B. Gehr http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1044-9296

C. Rouco http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1026-3253

J. E. F. Oshima http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1545-768X

C. Bonenfant http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9924-419X

D. Zinner http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3967-8014

R. Yarnell http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6584-7374

M. Thaker http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6019-2639

T. L. Scheppers http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5098-9326

A. Bertassoni http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4806-579X

H. Ambarli http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4336-9417

L. Swedell http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6909-2669

Article

Publisher ID: PONE-D-18-33139

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0216223

PMC ID: 6508664

PubMed ID: 31071155

SO-VID: 281f3d0f-6c99-4e86-936b-32cba1ab616a

License:

This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.

History

Date received : 18 November 2018

Date accepted : 15 April 2019

Page count

Figures: 6, Tables: 3, Pages: 26

Funding

This work was supported by: Forest and Nature for Society (FONASO) Erasmus Mundus Joint Doctorate programme (CONTRACT NO. 2013–09) to MPGH, Publication costs were covered by the Open Access Publication Fund of the University of Goettingen; The Norwegian Environment Agency, the Research Council of Norway (project 212919), Norwegian Institute for Nature Research to JM; Messerli Foundation, WWF to JMel; CRou: The author was supported in the form of salary by a postdoctoral grant funded by Landcare Research Ltd New Zealand and data provided was funded by research project grant from TBfree New Zealand (AHB project number R-10737). Norwegian Research Counsil, Småfefondet, NMBU to NHJ; The Research Council of Norway to GS; Federal State of Baden-Wuerttemberg (Landesjagdabgabe) to MK; Funding for the capture and collaring of khulan was received from Wildlife Conservation Society, administered through a cooperative agreement with Sustainability East Asia LLC - SEA and originating from Oyu Tolgoi – OT gold and copper mining company to PK; Swedish fieldwork was supported by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and by the private foundation "Marie Clair Cronstedts stiftelse" to PKje; NASA Arctic Boreal Vulnerability Experiment (project #NNX15AV92A), National Geographic Society Waitt Grant Program (Grant #W157-110) to SL; Research Council of Norway to JDCL; FAPESP (2013/50421-2, 2014/23132-2), CNPq (312045/2013-1; 312292/2016-3; 161089/2014-3), Silicon Valley Community Foundation, The Overbrook Foundation, the International ReSource Award, WCS Brasil, and Vanderbilt University. PROCAD/CAPES (88881.068425/2014-01); MLSJ Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo - Fapesp (process: 2013/50421-2 and scholarship: 2014/23132-2) and CNPQ (scholarship: 161089/2014-3), Projeto Pecarídeos - WCS Brasil and Vanderbilt University for funding this research to JEFO.; Howard G Buffett Foundation, Amarula Trust to AS; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología - CONACYT with resources from the FEE to JJT; Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG) grant numbers 814274 and 834118, Leobner Realgemeinschaft and Forstbetrieb Kletschach to RS; WWF Nedbank Green Trust (grant number GT 2251) to MD; DFG Fi707/9-1 / DFG Zi548/6-1 / DAAD (D/12/41834) to MKla; DFG FI707/9-1, DFG ZI548/6-1, DAAD D/12/41834 to DZ; GPS tags were funded by Nottingham Trent University, National Geographic, Earthwatch Institute, World Wildlife Fund for Nature, Columbus Zoo to RY; The Howard G. Buffett Foundation to AStr; ISRO-IISc Space Technology Cell to MT; Wellcome Trust/DBT India Alliance and Space Technology Cell, Indian Institute of Science to ATV; D.R.E.Am. Italia provided support in the form of salary for author SN, but did not have any additional role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The specific role of this author is articulated in the ‘author contributions’ section. RG was supported by funds of the Lower Saxony Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection; Panthera Kaplan Graduate Award to AD; Bank of America to JAM; The Norwegian Environment Agency, the Research Council of Norway (Project 212919), the Reindeer Development Fund in Norway, and several County administrations around Norway to JO; Rhodes University to DMP; Robin Hurt Wildlife Foundation, Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute to AC; Wildlife Conservation Network, Panthera to CT; Humboldt State University, HSU Marine and Coastal Science Initiative, California North Coast Chapter of The Wildlife Society, Sequoia Park Zoo Foundation to CLA; Humboldt State University Research, Scholarship and Creative Activities Grant to IA; Humboldt State University Research, Scholarship and Creative Activities Grant to WTB; Claude Leon Foundation Postdoctoral Fellowship, The Cape Leopard Trust, Conservation South Africa, South African National Parks to BC; GPS collars were funded by the HERD project (Hwange Environmental Research Development), funded by the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (FEAR project ANR-08-BLAN-0022), and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (Programme Zones Ateliers). Some collars were funded by the National Geographic Society GRANT #C151-08 to SP; NSERC CGS D to KJT; SK: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to SK; Service public de Wallonie. Direction générale de l’Agriculture, des Ressources naturelles et de l’Environnement to AL; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to KB; Parrotia-Stiftung, Stiftung Dr. Joachim de Giacomi, Basler Stiftung für biologische Forschung, Messerli Stiftung, Carl Burger Stiftung, CIC Schweiz, CIC Deutschland, Paul Schiller Stiftung and Karl Mayer Stiftung to SCS; Consórcio Capim Branco de Energia to FCA; Consórcio Capim Branco de Energia to FGL; Ministère de l’Agriculture de l’Agroalimentaire et de la Forêt, the Conseil Régional de Bourgogne, the Conseil Général de la Côte d’Or, the Fédération Départementale des Chasseurs de Côte d’Or, the Groupement de Défense Sanitaire de Côte d’Or, the Fédération Nationale des Chasseurs and the Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage to AP.; South African National Research Foundation (Grant number: 107099) to LHS; São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP 2013/04957-8 and FAPESP 2013/18526-9) to ABer; MAVA Foundation, Switzerland; The Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt DBU (German Federal Environmental Foundation) to DM; Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) to CRic; Anses to ER; Project GLOBE (POLNOR/198352/85/2013) funded by the Polish-Norwegian Research Programme operated by the National Centre for Research and Development; ASer: Norway Grants under the Polish-Norwegian Research Program operated by the National Centre for Research and Development (GLOBE, POL-NOR/198352/85/2013) to NS; The People’s Trust for Endangered Species (PTES), Zoologische Gesellschaft für Arten- und Populationsschutz (ZGAP), Iranian Cheetah Society, Quagga Conservation Fund, IdeaWild, Panthera and Association Francaise des Parcs Zoologiques (AFdPZ) to MSF; DEAL (Direction de l'Environnement de l'Aménagement et du Logement) de Guyane, CNES (Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales) to RBer; The Nedbank WWF Green Trust, The International Foundation for Science, the Cape Leopard Trust, Rhodes University to GKM; German Research Foundation (DFG: KA 1082/16-1) to LP; The Wildlife and Reserve Management Research Group (WRMRG), International Foundation for Science (IFS), Safari Club International Foundation (SCIF), The Rufford Small Grants Foundation, Ernst & Ethel Eriksen Trust to TG; WWF Sweden to RSte; Leakey Foundation, National Geographic Society, Wenner-Gren Foundation to LS; Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Colciencias, Project “Efecto de la presencia de saladosnaturales en la distribución y uso de hábitat de la danta de tier-ras bajas (Tapirus terrestris) en las amazonas colombiano” (grantnumber 1101-569-33286, contract: 0385-2013) to DA; Post-Doctoral Fellowship from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation to ORB; NSF Graduate Research Fellowship DEG-125608 to SKac. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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