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      A Chronicle of SARS-CoV-2: Seasonality, Environmental Fate, Transport, Inactivation, and Antiviral Drug Resistance

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          Abstract

          In this review, we present the environmental perspectives of the viruses and antiviral drugs related to SARS-CoV-2. The present review paper discusses occurrence, fate, transport, susceptibility, and inactivation mechanisms of viruses in the environment as well as environmental occurrence and fate of antiviral drugs, and prospects (prevalence and occurrence) of antiviral drug resistance (both antiviral drug resistant viruses and antiviral resistance in the human). During winter, the number of viral disease cases and environmental occurrence of antiviral drug surge due to various biotic and abiotic factors such as transmission pathways, human behaviour, susceptibility, and immunity as well as cold climatic conditions. Adsorption and persistence critically determine the fate and transport of viruses in the environment. Inactivation and disinfection of virus include UV, alcohol, chemical-base methods but the susceptibility of virus against these methods varies. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are major sources of antiviral drugs and their metabolites and transformation products. Ecotoxicity of antiviral drug residues against aquatic organisms have been reported, however more threatening is the development of antiviral resistance, both in humans and in wild animal reservoirs. In particular, emergence of antiviral drug-resistant viruses via exposure of wild animals to high loads of antiviral residues during the current pandemic needs further evaluation.

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          HIGHLIGHTS

          • •

            We analysed environmental perspectives of antiviral drugs and SARS-CoV-2.

          • •

            Susceptibility and inactivation causes seasonality in the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2.

          • •

            Surface-charge interactions govern environmental fate and transport of SARS-CoV-2.

          • •

            Unprecedented use of antiviral drugs is hazardous to the environment.

          • •

            Emergence of antiviral drug-resistant viruses needs further investigations.

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          Most cited references150

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          Clinical Characteristics of 138 Hospitalized Patients With 2019 Novel Coronavirus–Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China

          Dawei Wang, Bo Hu, Fangfang Zhu … (2020)
          In December 2019, novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV)-infected pneumonia (NCIP) occurred in Wuhan, China. The number of cases has increased rapidly but information on the clinical characteristics of affected patients is limited.
          Article 0 comments Cited 10858 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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            Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and their inactivation with biocidal agents

            G Kampf, D Todt, S. Pfaender … (2020)
            Summary Currently, the emergence of a novel human coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, has become a global health concern causing severe respiratory tract infections in humans. Human-to-human transmissions have been described with incubation times between 2-10 days, facilitating its spread via droplets, contaminated hands or surfaces. We therefore reviewed the literature on all available information about the persistence of human and veterinary coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces as well as inactivation strategies with biocidal agents used for chemical disinfection, e.g. in healthcare facilities. The analysis of 22 studies reveals that human coronaviruses such as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) coronavirus, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus or endemic human coronaviruses (HCoV) can persist on inanimate surfaces like metal, glass or plastic for up to 9 days, but can be efficiently inactivated by surface disinfection procedures with 62–71% ethanol, 0.5% hydrogen peroxide or 0.1% sodium hypochlorite within 1 minute. Other biocidal agents such as 0.05–0.2% benzalkonium chloride or 0.02% chlorhexidine digluconate are less effective. As no specific therapies are available for SARS-CoV-2, early containment and prevention of further spread will be crucial to stop the ongoing outbreak and to control this novel infectious thread.
            Article 0 comments Cited 1475 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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              The FDA-approved Drug Ivermectin inhibits the replication of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro

              Leon Caly, Julian Druce, Mike Catton … (2020)
              Although several clinical trials are now underway to test possible therapies, the worldwide response to the COVID-19 outbreak has been largely limited to monitoring/containment. We report here that Ivermectin, an FDA-approved anti-parasitic previously shown to have broad-spectrum anti-viral activity in vitro, is an inhibitor of the causative virus (SARS-CoV-2), with a single addition to Vero-hSLAM cells 2 hours post infection with SARS-CoV-2 able to effect ∼5000-fold reduction in viral RNA at 48 h. Ivermectin therefore warrants further investigation for possible benefits in humans.
              Article 0 comments Cited 953 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): J Hazard Mater
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): J Hazard Mater
                Title: Journal of Hazardous Materials
                Publisher: Elsevier B.V.
                ISSN (Print): 0304-3894
                ISSN (Electronic): 1873-3336
                Publication date PMC-release: 6 October 2020
                Publication date (Electronic): 6 October 2020
                Electronic Location Identifier: 124043
                Affiliations
                [a ]Discipline of Earth Science, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382 355, India
                [b ]Centre for the Environment, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam 781039, India
                [c ]Environmnetal Science and Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076 India
                [d ]Discipline of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382 355, India
                [e ]Department of Sustainable Development, Environmental Science and Engineering, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 10B, SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden
                [f ]Laboratory of Soil- and Groundwater-Management, School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal 42285, Germany
                [g ]Department of Environment, Energy and Geoinformatics, University of Sejong, Seoul, Republic of Korea
                [h ]Division of Environmental Engineering, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
                [i ]Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences, University of Wollongong, Australia
                [j ]Department of Civil Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh
                [k ]Research Centre for Water Environment Technology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
                [l ]Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark
                [m ]Department of Environmental and Civil Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, Toyama 9390398, Japan
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence to: Discipline of Earth Sciences | Room No. 336A, Block 5| Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar-382355, Gujarat, INDIA.
                Article
                Publisher Item ID: S0304-3894(20)32033-1 Publisher ID: 124043
                DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124043
                PMC ID: 7536132
                PubMed ID: 33268203
                SO-VID: 3786faf2-d8fe-408c-b1c2-89a767f3dcf7
                Copyright © © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
                License:

                Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID-19. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVID-19-related research that is available on the COVID-19 resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for free by Elsevier for as long as the COVID-19 resource centre remains active.

                History
                Date received : 22 June 2020
                Date revision received : 11 September 2020
                Date accepted : 17 September 2020
                Categories
                Subject: Article

                Keywords: coronavirus,covid-19,water,antiviral drugs,antiviral resistance,sars-cov-2
                Data availability:
                Keywords: coronavirus, covid-19, water, antiviral drugs, antiviral resistance, sars-cov-2

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