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      Composition of nutrients, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and microbiological quality in processed small indigenous fish species from Ghana: Implications for food security

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          Abstract

          The triple burden of malnutrition is an incessant issue in low- and middle-income countries, and fish has the potential to mitigate this burden. In Ghana fish is a central part of the diet, but data on nutrients and contaminants in processed indigenous fish species, that are often eaten whole, are missing. Samples of smoked, dried or salted Engraulis encrasicolus (European anchovy), Brachydeuterus auritus (bigeye grunt), Sardinella aurita (round sardinella), Selene dorsalis (African moonfish), Sierrathrissa leonensis (West African (WA) pygmy herring) and Tilapia spp. (tilapia) were collected from five different regions in Ghana. Samples were analyzed for nutrients (crude protein, fat, fatty acids, several vitamins, minerals, and trace elements), microbiological quality (microbial loads of total colony counts, E. coli, coliforms, and Salmonella), and contaminants (PAH4 and heavy metals). Except for tilapia, the processed small fish species had the potential to significantly contribute to the nutrient intakes of vitamins, minerals, and essential fatty acids. High levels of iron, mercury and lead were detected in certain fish samples, which calls for further research and identification of anthropogenic sources along the value chains. The total cell counts in all samples were acceptable; Salmonella was not detected in any sample and E. coli only in one sample. However, high numbers of coliform bacteria were found. PAH4 in smoked samples reached high concentrations up to 1,300 μg/kg, but in contrast salted tilapia samples had a range of PAH4 concentration of 1 μg/kg to 24 μg/kg. This endpoint oriented study provides data for the nutritional value of small processed fish as food in Ghana and also provides information about potential food safety hazards. Future research is needed to determine potential sources of contamination along the value chains in different regions, identify critical points, and develop applicable mitigation strategies to improve the quality and safety of processed small fish in Ghana.

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          A simple method for the isolation and purification of total lipides from animal tissues.

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            Selenium and human health.

            Selenium is incorporated into selenoproteins that have a wide range of pleiotropic effects, ranging from antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects to the production of active thyroid hormone. In the past 10 years, the discovery of disease-associated polymorphisms in selenoprotein genes has drawn attention to the relevance of selenoproteins to health. Low selenium status has been associated with increased risk of mortality, poor immune function, and cognitive decline. Higher selenium status or selenium supplementation has antiviral effects, is essential for successful male and female reproduction, and reduces the risk of autoimmune thyroid disease. Prospective studies have generally shown some benefit of higher selenium status on the risk of prostate, lung, colorectal, and bladder cancers, but findings from trials have been mixed, which probably emphasises the fact that supplementation will confer benefit only if intake of a nutrient is inadequate. Supplementation of people who already have adequate intake with additional selenium might increase their risk of type-2 diabetes. The crucial factor that needs to be emphasised with regard to the health effects of selenium is the inextricable U-shaped link with status; whereas additional selenium intake may benefit people with low status, those with adequate-to-high status might be affected adversely and should not take selenium supplements. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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              Vitamin D deficiency: a worldwide problem with health consequences.

              Vitamin D deficiency is now recognized as a pandemic. The major cause of vitamin D deficiency is the lack of appreciation that sun exposure in moderation is the major source of vitamin D for most humans. Very few foods naturally contain vitamin D, and foods that are fortified with vitamin D are often inadequate to satisfy either a child's or an adult's vitamin D requirement. Vitamin D deficiency causes rickets in children and will precipitate and exacerbate osteopenia, osteoporosis, and fractures in adults. Vitamin D deficiency has been associated with increased risk of common cancers, autoimmune diseases, hypertension, and infectious diseases. A circulating level of 25-hydroxyvitamin D of >75 nmol/L, or 30 ng/mL, is required to maximize vitamin D's beneficial effects for health. In the absence of adequate sun exposure, at least 800-1000 IU vitamin D3/d may be needed to achieve this in children and adults. Vitamin D2 may be equally effective for maintaining circulating concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D when given in physiologic concentrations.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS One
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                12 November 2020
                2020
                : 15
                : 11
                : e0242086
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
                [2 ] German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
                [3 ] Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Food Research Institute, Accra, Ghana
                [4 ] Department of Nutrition and Food Science, School of Biological Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
                [5 ] Department of Fisheries and Water Resources, University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana
                Universidade de Sao Paulo, BRAZIL
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                ‡ AEH and LW share first authorship on this work. JP and MK share last authorship on this work.

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5559-3139
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5820-5293
                Article
                PONE-D-20-09234
                10.1371/journal.pone.0242086
                7660496
                33180860
                39b5ff6c-0f63-410d-970e-07d8ea4e8497
                © 2020 Hasselberg et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 31 March 2020
                : 26 October 2020
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 2, Pages: 25
                Funding
                Funded by: Research Council of Norway
                Award ID: 290451
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100010771, Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung;
                Award ID: 323-06.01-03-2817LEAP06
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100010661, Horizon 2020 Framework Programme;
                Award ID: 727715
                The here presented research activities were supported by funds of the Research Council of Norway and the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture (BMEL) based on a decision of the Parliament of the Federal Republic of Germany via the Federal Office for Agriculture and Food (BLE). The conducted work is part of the project “Small Fish and Food Security: Towards innovative integration of fish in African food systems to improve nutrition” (SmallFishFood) funded within the ERA-NET LEAP-Agri which was co-financed by the European Union´s EU Framework Programme for Research and Innovation Horizon 2020 under the ERA-NET-Cofund under Grant Agreement No. 727715. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Eukaryota
                Animals
                Vertebrates
                Fish
                Marine Fish
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Zoology
                Animals
                Vertebrates
                Fish
                Marine Fish
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Marine Biology
                Marine Fish
                Earth Sciences
                Marine and Aquatic Sciences
                Marine Biology
                Marine Fish
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Eukaryota
                Animals
                Vertebrates
                Fish
                Freshwater Fish
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Zoology
                Animals
                Vertebrates
                Fish
                Freshwater Fish
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Nutrition
                Diet
                Food
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Nutrition
                Diet
                Food
                People and Places
                Geographical Locations
                Africa
                Ghana
                Physical Sciences
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                Chemical Elements
                Heavy Metals
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Toxicology
                Toxic Agents
                Toxins
                Heavy Metals
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
                Toxicology
                Toxic Agents
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                Heavy Metals
                Physical Sciences
                Chemistry
                Chemical Compounds
                Organic Compounds
                Vitamins
                Physical Sciences
                Chemistry
                Organic Chemistry
                Organic Compounds
                Vitamins
                Physical Sciences
                Chemistry
                Chemical Elements
                Metallic Mercury
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Biochemistry
                Lipids
                Fatty Acids
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                All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting information files.

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