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      Quantitative assessment of fecal contamination in multiple environmental sample types in urban communities in Dhaka, Bangladesh using SaniPath microbial approach

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          Abstract

          Rapid urbanization has led to a growing sanitation crisis in urban areas of Bangladesh and potential exposure to fecal contamination in the urban environment due to inadequate sanitation and poor fecal sludge management. Limited data are available on environmental fecal contamination associated with different exposure pathways in urban Dhaka. We conducted a cross-sectional study to explore the magnitude of fecal contamination in the environment in low-income, high-income, and transient/floating neighborhoods in urban Dhaka. Ten samples were collected from each of 10 environmental compartments in 10 different neighborhoods (4 low-income, 4 high-income and 2 transient/floating neighborhoods). These 1,000 samples were analyzed with the IDEXX-Quanti-Tray technique to determine most-probable-number (MPN) of E. coli. Samples of open drains (6.91 log 10 MPN/100 mL), surface water (5.28 log 10 MPN/100 mL), floodwater (4.60 log 10 MPN/100 mL), produce (3.19 log 10 MPN/serving), soil (2.29 log 10 MPN/gram), and street food (1.79 log 10 MPN/gram) had the highest mean log 10 E. coli contamination compared to other samples. The contamination concentrations did not differ between low-income and high-income neighborhoods for shared latrine swabs, open drains, municipal water, produce, and street foodsamples. E. coli contamination levels were significantly higher (p <0.05) in low-income neighborhoods compared to high-income for soil (0.91 log 10 MPN/gram, 95% CI, 0.39, 1.43), bathing water (0.98 log 10 MPN/100 mL, 95% CI, 0.41, 1.54), non-municipal water (0.64 log 10 MPN/100 mL, 95% CI, 0.24, 1.04), surface water (1.92 log 10 MPN/100 mL, 95% CI, 1.44, 2.40), and floodwater (0.48 log 10 MPN/100 mL, 95% CI, 0.03, 0.92) samples. E. coli contamination were significantly higher (p<0.05) in low-income neighborhoods compared to transient/floating neighborhoods for drain water, bathing water, non-municipal water and surface water. Future studies should examine behavior that brings people into contact with the environment and assess the extent of exposure to fecal contamination in the environment through multiple pathways and associated risks.

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          Food-borne diseases — The challenges of 20 years ago still persist while new ones continue to emerge

          Diane G Newell, Marion Koopmans, Linda Verhoef … (2010)
          The burden of diseases caused by food-borne pathogens remains largely unknown. Importantly data indicating trends in food-borne infectious intestinal disease is limited to a few industrialised countries, and even fewer pathogens. It has been predicted that the importance of diarrhoeal disease, mainly due to contaminated food and water, as a cause of death will decline worldwide. Evidence for such a downward trend is limited. This prediction presumes that improvements in the production and retail of microbiologically safe food will be sustained in the developed world and, moreover, will be rolled out to those countries of the developing world increasingly producing food for a global market. In this review evidence is presented to indicate that the microbiological safety of food remains a dynamic situation heavily influenced by multiple factors along the food chain from farm to fork. Sustaining food safety standards will depend on constant vigilance maintained by monitoring and surveillance but, with the rising importance of other food-related issues, such as food security, obesity and climate change, competition for resources in the future to enable this may be fierce. In addition the pathogen populations relevant to food safety are not static. Food is an excellent vehicle by which many pathogens (bacteria, viruses/prions and parasites) can reach an appropriate colonisation site in a new host. Although food production practices change, the well-recognised food-borne pathogens, such as Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli, seem able to evolve to exploit novel opportunities, for example fresh produce, and even generate new public health challenges, for example antimicrobial resistance. In addition, previously unknown food-borne pathogens, many of which are zoonotic, are constantly emerging. Current understanding of the trends in food-borne diseases for bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens has been reviewed. The bacterial pathogens are exemplified by those well-recognized by policy makers; i.e. Salmonella, Campylobacter, E. coli and Listeria monocytogenes. Antimicrobial resistance in several bacterial food-borne pathogens (Salmonella, Campylobacter, Shigella and Vibrio spp., methicillin resistant Staphylcoccus aureas, E. coli and Enterococci) has been discussed as a separate topic because of its relative importance to policy issues. Awareness and surveillance of viral food-borne pathogens is generally poor but emphasis is placed on Norovirus, Hepatitis A, rotaviruses and newly emerging viruses such as SARS. Many food-borne parasitic pathogens are known (for example Ascaris, Cryptosporidia and Trichinella) but few of these are effectively monitored in foods, livestock and wildlife and their epidemiology through the food-chain is poorly understood. The lessons learned and future challenges in each topic are debated. It is clear that one overall challenge is the generation and maintenance of constructive dialogue and collaboration between public health, veterinary and food safety experts, bringing together multidisciplinary skills and multi-pathogen expertise. Such collaboration is essential to monitor changing trends in the well-recognised diseases and detect emerging pathogens. It will also be necessary understand the multiple interactions these pathogens have with their environments during transmission along the food chain in order to develop effective prevention and control strategies.
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            The global burden of cholera.

            Mohammad Alauddin Mohammad Ali, Anna Lena Lopez, Young You … (2012)
            To estimate the global burden of cholera using population-based incidence data and reports. Countries with a recent history of cholera were classified as endemic or non-endemic, depending on whether they had reported cholera cases in at least three of the five most recent years. The percentages of the population in each country that lacked access to improved sanitation were used to compute the populations at risk for cholera, and incidence rates from published studies were applied to groups of countries to estimate the annual number of cholera cases in endemic countries. The estimates of cholera cases in non-endemic countries were based on the average numbers of cases reported from 2000 to 2008. Literature-based estimates of cholera case-fatality rates (CFRs) were used to compute the variance-weighted average cholera CFRs for estimating the number of cholera deaths. About 1.4 billion people are at risk for cholera in endemic countries. An estimated 2.8 million cholera cases occur annually in such countries (uncertainty range: 1.4-4.3) and an estimated 87,000 cholera cases occur in non-endemic countries. The incidence is estimated to be greatest in children less than 5 years of age. Every year about 91,000 people (uncertainty range: 28,000 to 142,000) die of cholera in endemic countries and 2500 people die of the disease in non-endemic countries. The global burden of cholera, as determined through a systematic review with clearly stated assumptions, is high. The findings of this study provide a contemporary basis for planning public health interventions to control cholera.
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              Campylobacteriosis, Salmonellosis, Yersiniosis, and Listeriosis as Zoonotic Foodborne Diseases: A Review

              Agnieszka Chlebicz, Katarzyna Śliżewska (2018)
              Zoonoses are diseases transmitted from animals to humans, posing a great threat to the health and life of people all over the world. According to WHO estimations, 600 million cases of diseases caused by contaminated food were noted in 2010, including almost 350 million caused by pathogenic bacteria. Campylobacter, Salmonella, as well as Yersinia enterocolitica and Listeria monocytogenes may dwell in livestock (poultry, cattle, and swine) but are also found in wild animals, pets, fish, and rodents. Animals, often being asymptomatic carriers of pathogens, excrete them with faeces, thus delivering them to the environment. Therefore, pathogens may invade new individuals, as well as reside on vegetables and fruits. Pathogenic bacteria also penetrate food production areas and may remain there in the form of a biofilm covering the surfaces of machines and equipment. A common occurrence of microbes in food products, as well as their improper or careless processing, leads to common poisonings. Symptoms of foodborne infections may be mild, sometimes flu-like, but they also may be accompanied by severe complications, some even fatal. The aim of the paper is to summarize and provide information on campylobacteriosis, salmonellosis, yersiniosis, and listeriosis and the aetiological factors of those diseases, along with the general characteristics of pathogens, virulence factors, and reservoirs.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Nuhu Amin:
                ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7131-6163
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draft
                Mahbubur Rahman: Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Suraja Raj: Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Shahjahan Ali: Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Jamie Green: Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Shimul Das: Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Solaiman Doza: Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Momenul Haque Mondol: Role: SoftwareRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Yuke Wang: Role: Data curationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Mohammad Aminul Islam: Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Mahbub-Ul Alam: Role: ConceptualizationRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Tarique Md. Nurul Huda: Role: ConceptualizationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Sabrina Haque: Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: Writing – review & editing
                Leanne Unicomb: Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                George Joseph: Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Christine L. Moe: Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Vassilis G. Aschonitis: Role: Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): PLoS One
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): PLoS ONE
                Journal ID (publisher-id): plos
                Journal ID (pmc): plosone
                Title: PLoS ONE
                Publisher: Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                ISSN (Electronic): 1932-6203
                Publication date (Electronic): 16 December 2019
                Publication date Collection: 2019
                Volume: 14
                Issue: 12
                Electronic Location Identifier: e0221193
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Infectious Disease Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
                [2 ] Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
                [3 ] Department of Statistics, University of Barishal, Barishal, Bangladesh
                [4 ] Laboratory Sciences and Services Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
                [5 ] Paul G Allen School for Global Animal Health, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
                [6 ] Water Global Practice, The World Bank, Washington DC, United States of America
                Hellenic Agricultural Organization - Demeter, GREECE
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7131-6163
                Article
                Publisher ID: PONE-D-19-21392
                DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0221193
                PMC ID: 6913925
                PubMed ID: 31841549
                SO-VID: 4edc1d86-83a8-4d6c-b90e-fe9527f64ebf
                Copyright © © 2019 Amin et al
                License:

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                Date received : 30 July 2019
                Date accepted : 19 November 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 3, Pages: 21
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000865, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation;
                Award ID: 00010161
                Award Recipient :
                The study was financially supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (grant no. 00010161) through the Rollins School of Public Health at Emory University. icddr,b acknowledges with gratitude the commitment of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University to its research efforts. We acknowledge the World Bank Bangladesh Country Office team for their efforts in partnering, workshops, and contributing to sampling/study design. icddr,b is also grateful to the Governments of Bangladesh, Canada, Sweden and the UK for providing core/unrestricted support. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Subject: Research Article
                Subject: Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Subject: Natural Resources
                Subject: Water Resources
                Subject: Earth Sciences
                Subject: Geography
                Subject: Human Geography
                Subject: Neighborhoods
                Subject: Social Sciences
                Subject: Human Geography
                Subject: Neighborhoods
                Subject: Earth Sciences
                Subject: Hydrology
                Subject: Surface Water
                Subject: Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Subject: Terrestrial Environments
                Subject: Urban Environments
                Subject: Earth Sciences
                Subject: Hydrology
                Subject: Flooding
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Health Care
                Subject: Environmental Health
                Subject: Sanitation
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Public and Occupational Health
                Subject: Environmental Health
                Subject: Sanitation
                Subject: Engineering and Technology
                Subject: Environmental Engineering
                Subject: Water Management
                Subject: Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Subject: Pollution
                Subject: Water Pollution
                Custom metadata
                Data Availability All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

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