Examination of the predictive value of blood pressure for later mortality has a long
research pedigree: among the earliest investigations of risk were those undertaken
by the US life insurance industry over four decades ago (Society of Actuaries, 1959).
The finding in this study of a positive relation between blood pressure and all-cause
mortality was later demonstrated for cardiovascular disease (CVD) (Kannel et al, 1986;
Miura et al, 2001). In these investigations, the magnitude of the relation of blood
pressure with CVD is typically greater than that between blood pressure and total
mortality; similarly, in randomised trials, anti-hypertensive drug treatment lowers
CVD incidence but not necessarily total mortality (Neal et al, 2000). This suggests
that the association between blood pressure and non-CVD causes of death – including
cancer – is null or possibly even negative.
The potential link between blood pressure and cancer risk was first examined by de
Waard and Baanders-van Halewijn (1974) in a cohort of women, and Dyer et al (1975)
in a cohort of men, where the finding of a positive relation prompted a series of
subsequent investigations (Svardsudd and Tibblin, 1979; Raynor et al, 1981; Khaw and
Barrett-Connor, 1984; Goldbourt et al, 1986; Fraser et al, 1990; Grove et al, 1991;
Filipovsky et al, 1993; Hole et al, 1993; Wannamethee and Shaper, 1996). Collectively
(Grossman et al, 2002), there is some evidence that blood pressure is related to an
elevated risk of all-cancers combined and renal cancer. Owing to a general paucity
of data, however, the relationship between blood pressure and other cancer sites is
inconclusive and justifies further examination. Further, existing data are hampered
by methodological issues, including reverse causality, lack of adjustment for some
potential confounding factors, and inadequate statistical power owing to a small number
of cases.
Against this background of inconsistent findings and study limitations we examined
the relation of blood pressure to cancer risk at 13 anatomical sites using a 25-year
mortality surveillance of 18 403 male government workers in the original Whitehall
study, a prospective investigation.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In the Whitehall study, data were collected on 18 403 non-industrial London-based
male government employees aged from 40 to 64 years when examined between September
1967 and January 1970, representing a 74% response proportion. Data collection involved
the completion of a study questionnaire and participation in a medical examination,
both of which have been described in detail elsewhere (Reid et al, 1974). In brief,
the questionnaire included enquiries regarding civil service employment grade (our
indicator of socioeconomic position) (Marmot et al, 1978), smoking habits (Reid et
al, 1976), intermittent claudication (Rose, 1962; Davey Smith et al, 1990), angina
(Rose, 1962; Rose et al, 1977b), chronic bronchitis (Committee on the Aetiology of
Chronic Bronchitis, 1965) and use of medication, including blood pressure-lowering
drugs. Forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) (adjusted for height (Batty et al, 2002)),
ischaemia (Rose et al, 1977a), fasting plasma cholesterol (Davey Smith et al, 1992),
2-h blood glucose (Jarrett et al, 1986), height (Leon et al, 1995), and weight (Jarrett
et al, 1982) were determined using standardised protocols.
Assessment of blood pressure
Having been seated while the questionnaire was checked, blood pressure was recorded
from a single reading taken from the left arm by a trained observer (Rose, 1965) using
a calibrated London School of Hygiene sphygmomanometer (Rose et al, 1964). Systolic
blood pressure was recorded at the first appearance of the Korotkoff sounds; diastolic
pressure was recorded at both their muffling (phase IV) and disappearance (phase V).
Ascertainment of cancer mortality
The records of 18 260 men (99.2% of subjects) were traced and ‘flagged’, using the
procedures of the Office for National Statistics (Southport), until 31 January 1995.
Death certificates were coded according to the eighth revision of the International
Classification of Diseases (ICD) (Anon., 1967). The category of all malignant neoplasms
(ICD 140-208) – referred to here as ‘all-cancers’ – was divided into 13 individual
sites: oesophagus (ICD 150); stomach (ICD 151); colon (ICD 153); rectum (ICD 154);
liver (ICD 155–156); pancreas (ICD 157); trachea, bronchus and lung (ICD 162 – referred
to as ‘lung cancer’); prostate (ICD 185); bladder (ICD 188); kidney (ICD 189); brain
(ICD 191); lymphoma (ICD 200–203); and leukaemia (ICD 204–207).
Data analyses
Our analyses are based on 17 498 men without missing data and exclude 26 men for whom
the cause of death was unknown. In analyses of baseline characteristics according
to levels of blood pressure, the prevalence of these characteristics were adjusted
for age (5-year age groups) by the direct standardisation method. Trends in these
proportions were tested for statistical significance using the Mantel–Haenszel test.
For baseline characteristics expressed as continuous variables, least-squares means
were used to present the age-adjusted means, and tests for trend across blood pressure
groups were computed by fitting a linear trend term.
Cox's (Cox, 1972) proportional hazards regression model was used to compute rate ratios
and accompanying confidence intervals for the association between components of blood
pressure and each mortality outcome. In these analyses we divided each component of
blood pressure into tertiles, using the lowest tertile as the referent category. We
also fitted systolic and diastolic blood pressure as continuous variables, using these
coefficients to test for linear trend and compute the rate ratio per 10 mmHg increase
in each blood pressure component.
These models were initially adjusted for age and then for other potential confounding
(employment grade, smoking status, blood pressure-lowering medication, marital status,
disease at study entry) and mediating (body mass index, triceps skinfold thickness,
FEV1, cholesterol) variables. Age, cholesterol, body mass index, triceps skinfold
thickness, and height-adjusted FEV1 were fitted as continuous variables, whereas employment
grade (five levels), marital status (four), blood pressure-lowering medication (two),
smoking status (four) (with additional adjustment for the number of cigarettes smoked
per day in current smokers) and disease at entry (two) were fitted as categorical
variables. Disease at entry was defined as a positive response to enquiries regarding
one or more of the following at study entry: unexplained weight loss in the preceding
year, bronchitis, diabetes (based on self-report and blood glucose levels), ischaemia
(based on self-report and ECG trace), intermittent claudication, dyspnoea, or care
of a general practitioner for raised blood pressure or heart problems.
For some malignancies (e.g., renal cancer), tumour presence may elevate blood pressure
so generating a positive blood pressure–cancer association. To address this issue
of reverse causality, we excluded deaths in the first 10 years of follow-up and repeated
our analyses. In doing so, we reasoned that a large proportion of deaths attributable
to cancer, if present at study induction, would have occurred within this time frame
(Brenner, 2002).
RESULTS
The relation of components of blood pressure to baseline physical characteristics
is presented in Table 1
Table 1
Association between components of blood pressure and baseline physical characteristicsa
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)
Tertile 1
Tertile 2
Tertile 3
Tertile 1
Tertile 2
Tertile 3
(⩽125)
(126–142)
(⩾143)
P-trend
(⩽77)
(78–88)
(⩾89)
P-trend
Number
5833
5947
5718
—
5573
6096
5829
—
Mean (s.e.)
Age
50.2 (0.08)
51.2 (0.08)
53.3 (0.08)
<0.001
51.0 (0.08)
51.3 (0.08)
52.3 (0.08)
<0.001
Tricep skinfold thickness (mm)
42.3 (0.21)
44.9 (0.21)
47.0 (0.21)
<0.001
41.4 (0.21)
44.6 (0.20)
48.0 (0.21)
<0.001
Body mass index (kg m−2)
24.0 (0.04)
24.8 (0.04)
25.5 (0.04)
<0.001
23.7 (0.04)
24.7 (0.04)
25.8 (0.04)
<0.001
Plasma cholesterol (mmol l−1)
5.07 (0.02)
5.12 (0.02)
5.14 (0.02)
0.002
5.03 (0.02)
5.13 (0.02)
5.16 (0.02)
<0.001
FEV1
b (l s−1)
3.15 (0.01)
3.15 (0.01)
3.09 (0.01)
<0.001
3.14 (0.01)
3.14 (0.01)
3.11 (0.01)
0.004
Percent (s.e.)
Current cigarette smoker
44.2 (0.67)
41.0 (0.64)
39.0 (0.66)
<0.001
47.5 (0.67)
40.7 (0.63)
36.3 (0.63)
<0.001
Low work grade
23.1 (0.57)
22.8 (0.53)
25.2 (0.55)
0.007
23.8 (0.56)
22.7 (0.52)
25.0 (0.54)
0.12
No partner
11.7 (0.43)
11.4 (0.41)
12.3 (0.45)
0.31
11.6 (0.43)
11.5 (0.41)
12.5 (0.44)
0.18
Disease at study entry
21.0 (0.55)
21.2 (0.53)
26.7 (0.59)
<0.001
21.1 (0.55)
21.4 (0.52)
26.3 (0.57)
<0.001
Blood pressure-lowering medication
0.08 (0.03)
0.59 (0.10)
3.72 (0.25)
<0.001
0.11 (0.04)
0.74 (0.11)
3.59 (0.24)
<0.001
a
Adjusted for age (age is unadjusted).
b
FEV1=forced expiratory volume in 1 s adjusted for height.
. Cigarette smoking was inversely related to blood pressure levels, such that the
lowest prevalence was seen in the higher tertiles of each blood pressure component.
For all other characteristics, however, the most favourable levels of each was apparent
in the lower blood pressure groups with statistical significance seen for most, if
not all relationships.
In this cohort there were 7460 deaths over 25 years of follow-up. A total of 2226
deaths were ascribed to all-cancers, the most common site being that of the lung (30%
of cancer deaths). Rate ratios for the association of systolic and diastolic blood
pressure with mortality from all cancers and site-specific cancers are depicted in
Tables 2
Table 2
Rate ratios (95% confidence intervals) for systolic and diastolic blood pressure in
relation to site-specific cancer mortality
All-cancers
Lung
Oesophagus
Stomach
Pancreas
Colon
Rectum
(2226 deaths)
(658 deaths)
(77 deaths)
(157 deaths)
(107 deaths)
(198 deaths)
(71 deaths)
Age-adjusted
Multiply- adjusteda
Age-adjusted
Multiply-adjusted
Age-adjusted
Multiply-adjusted
Age-adjusted
Multiply-adjusted
Age-adjusted
Multiply-adjusted
Age-adjusted
Multiply-adjusted
Age-adjusted
Multiply-adjusted
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)
Tertile 3
0.96
0.98
0.76
0.82
1.23
1.14
1.21
1.18
0.73
0.72
0.81
0.78
1.27
1.20
(⩾143)
(0.87, 1.07)
(0.89, 1.10)
(0.62, 0.92)
(0.67, 1.00)
(0.70, 2.13)
(0.64, 2.01)
(0.82, 1.77)
(0.80, 1.76)
(0.45, 1.18)
(0.44, 1.19)
(0.57, 1.14)
(0.55, 1.12)
(0.71, 2.27)
(0.66, 2.17)
Tertile 2
0.94
0.97
0.86
0.94
1.00
0.98
0.90
0.91
0.86
0.87
0.80
0.80
1.03
1.00
(126–142)
(0.85, 1.05)
(0.88, 1.07)
(0.72, 1.04)
(0.78, 1.13)
(0.57, 1.75)
(0.56, 1.72)
(0.60, 1.35)
(0.61, 1.37)
(0.55, 1.35)
(0.55, 1.36)
(0.57, 1.12)
(0.57, 1.12)
(0.57, 1.87)
(0.55, 1.81)
Tertile 1
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
(⩽125)
Per 10 mmHg
1.00
1.00
0.95
0.97
1.00
0.98
1.06
1.05
0.94
0.94
0.96
0.95
1.04
1.03
increase
(0.97, 1.02)
(0.98, 1.02)
(0.92, 0.99)
(0.93, 1.01)
(0.90, 1.12)
(0.88, 1.11)
(0.98, 1.14)
(0.98, 1.14)
(0.85, 1.04)
(0.85, 1.04)
(0.89, 1.03)
(0.88, 1.02)
(0.93, 1.16)
(0.91, 1.16)
P for trend
0.62
0.89
0.011
0.15
0.94
0.79
0.15
0.18
0.21
0.22
0.24
0.17
0.54
0.65
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)
Tertile 3
0.91
0.99
0.63
0.79
1.30
1.24
1.11
1.14
0.63
0.64
0.98
0.94
1.88
1.84
(⩾89)
(0.82, 1.01)
(0.89, 1.10)
(0.52, 0.76)
(0.65, 0.97)
(0.71, 2.38)
(0.66, 2.32)
(0.76, 1.62)
(0.76, 1.70)
(0.39, 1.02)
(0.39, 1.05)
(0.70, 1.38)
(0.65, 1.34)
(1.06, 3.34)
(1.01, 3.34)
Tertile 2
0.86
0.92
0.72
0.85
1.64
1.66
0.90
0.94
0.72
0.74
0.88
0.86
0.96
0.95
(78–88)
(0.78, 0.96)
(0.83, 1.02)
(0.60, 0.86)
(0.71, 1.02)
(0.94, 2.88)
(0.94, 2.93)
(0.61, 1.34)
(0.64, 1.40)
(0.46, 1.13)
(0.47, 1.17)
(0.63, 1.24)
(0.61, 1.22)
(0.50, 1.83)
(0.50, 1.82)
Tertile 1
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
(⩽77)
Per 10 mmHg
0.99
1.02
0.90
0.98
1.01
0.99
1.03
1.04
0.86
0.86
0.96
0.95
1.19
1.19
increase
(0.96, 1.02)
(0.99, 1.06)
(0.85, 0.95)
(0.92, 1.04)
(0.85, 1.20)
(0.83, 1.18)
(0.92, 1.16)
(0.92, 1.18)
(0.74, 1.00)
(0.73, 1.01)
(0.87, 1.07)
(0.85, 1.06)
(1.01, 1.40)
(1.00, 1.41)
P for trend
0.50
0.24
0.0004
0.46
0.88
0.89
0.61
0.52
0.05
0.06
0.51
0.36
0.04
0.05
a
Adjustment for confounding (age, employment grade, smoking status, blood pressure-lowering
medication, marital status, disease at study entry) and mediating (body mass index,
triceps skinfold thickness, FEV1, cholesterol) variables.
and 3
Table 3
Rate ratios (95% confidence intervals) for systolic and diastolic blood pressure in
relation to site-specific cancer mortalitya
Prostate
Bladder
Brain
Leukaemia
Lymphoma
Liver
Kidney
(252 deaths)
(92 deaths)
(47 deaths)
(76 deaths)
(107 deaths)
(38 deaths)
(47 deaths)
Age-adjusted
Multiply-adjusteda
Age-adjusted
Multiply-adjusted
Age-adjusted
Multiply-adjusted
Age-adjusted
Multiply-adjusted
Age-adjusted
Multiply-adjusted
Age-adjusted
Multiply-adjusted
Age-adjusted
Multiply-adjusted
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)
Tertile 3
0.96
1.05
1.07
1.18
1.10
1.07
0.69
0.66
1.07
1.03
6.12
5.35
1.42
1.26
(⩾143)
(0.71,1.31)
(0.76,1.44)
(0.62, 1.85)
(0.67, 2.06)
(0.55, 2.18)
(0.53, 2.15)
(0.40, 1.19)
(0.38, 1.17)
(0.66, 1.76)
(0.62, 1.72)
(2.07, 18.1)
(1.78, 16.1)
(0.72, 2.82)
(0.62, 2.59)
Tertile 2
0.97
0.99
1.44
1.53
0.75
0.73
0.61
0.60
1.25
1.24
3.55
3.54
0.77
0.78
(126–142)
(0.72,1.32)
(0.73,1.35)
(0.87, 2.39)
(0.92, 2.54)
(0.37, 1.55)
(0.35, 1.51)
(0.35, 1.06)
(0.35, 1.04)
(0.79, 1.97)
(0.78, 1.96)
(1.17, 10.8)
(1.16, 10.8)
(0.36, 1.66)
(0.36, 1.67)
Tertile 1
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
(⩽125)
Per 10 mmHg
1.00
1.02
1.04
1.06
0.99
0.99
0.91
0.90
1.03
1.02
1.23
1.19
1.10
1.06
increase
(0.93,1.06)
(0.95,1.08)
(0.94, 1.14)
(0.96, 1.18)
(0.86, 1.15)
(0.85, 1.16)
(0.80, 1.02)
(0.79, 1.01)
(0.93, 1.13)
(0.92, 1.12)
(1.07, 1.41)
(1.03, 1.37)
(0.96, 1.25)
(0.92, 1.21)
P for trend
0.93
0.61
0.48
0.25
0.94
0.92
0.10
0.08
0.61
0.74
0.003
0.02
0.17
0.45
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)
Tertile 3
1.05
1.15
0.81
0.95
0.51
0.45
0.57
0.54
1.19
1.20
3.44
3.03
1.21
1.12
(⩾89)
(0.77,1.44)
(0.83,1.59)
(0.48, 1.36)
(0.54, 1.64)
(0.23, 1.13)
(0.20, 1.04)
(0.33, 0.98)
(0.30, 0.96)
(0.76, 1.87)
(0.75, 1.93)
(1.26, 9.40)
(1.07, 8.59)
(0.62, 2.37)
(0.54, 2.29)
Tertile 2
1.12
1.15
1.05
1.15
1.02
0.95
0.54
0.53
0.77
0.80
3.17
3.21
0.69
0.70
(78–88)
(0.83,1.51)
(0.85,1.56)
(0.65, 1.70)
(0.71, 1.87)
(0.54, 1.93)
(0.50, 1.82)
(0.32, 0.98)
(0.31, 0.92)
(0.47, 1.25)
(0.49, 1.30)
(1.17. 8.59)
(1.17, 8.77)
(0.33, 1.46)
(0.33, 1.48)
Tertile 1
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
(⩽77)
Per 10 mmHg
1.00
1.03
1.01
1.08
1.00
0.99
0.83
0.81
1.10
1.11
1.42
1.38
1.15
1.09
increase
(0.91,1.10)
(0.93,1.14)
(0.87, 1.18)
(0.92, 1.27)
(0.81, 1.24)
(0.78, 1.25)
(0.69, 0.99)
(0.67, 0.98)
(0.96, 1.27)
(0.96, 1.29)
(1.16, 1.73)
(1.10, 1.73)
(0.94, 1.41)
(0.88, 1.36)
P for trend
0.99
0.62
0.87
0.36
0.99
0.93
0.04
0.03
0.17
0.17
0.001
0.005
0.19
0.42
a
Adjustment for confounding (age, employment grade, smoking status, blood pressure-lowering
medication, marital status, disease at study entry) and mediating (body mass index,
triceps skinfold thickness, FEV1, cholesterol) variables.
. Given that the results of models adjusting for confounding variables only, and confounding
and mediating variables combined, were very similar, we only present the latter as
‘multiple’ adjustment.
Both systolic and diastolic blood pressure were essentially unrelated to total cancer
mortality. In age-adjusted analyses, inverse associations of cancer of the lung, and
pancreas, and leukaemia with blood pressure were seen at conventional levels of statistical
significance. Following multiple adjustment, the relationship with lung cancer was
lost. Blood pressure was positively related to cancer of the rectum (diastolic only)
and liver; confidence intervals latter, confidence intervals were wide owing to the
low number of deaths. In the analyses in which we excluded deaths occurring in the
first 10 years of follow-up, a positive association between diastolic, but not systolic,
blood pressure and lymphoma emerged (rate ratio, 95% confidence interval for 10 mmHg
increase in blood pressure; 1.16, 0.99–1.36, P [trend]=0.07).
DISCUSSION
In this large, prospective cohort study, blood pressure was related to few of the
cancer end points under investigation at conventional levels of statistical significance.
Thus, an inverse association between blood pressure and mortality due to pancreatic
cancer (diastolic only) and leukaemia was seen after adjustment for potential confounding
and mediating factors. After exclusion of deaths in the first decade of follow-up,
the relation for leukaemia was lost. Both systolic and diastolic blood pressure were
positively related to cancer of the liver, rectum and, after exclusion of early deaths,
lymph nodes.
Confounding and reverse causality
The interpretation of the findings of several studies of the blood pressure–cancer
relation is complicated by issues of confounding and reverse causality. The effect
of potentially important confounding variables such as social circumstances, alcohol
consumption and anti-hypertensive medications is rarely explored. Anti-hypertensive
medications have been linked to increased risk of malignancy in some (Armstrong et
al, 1974; Fletcher et al, 1993) but not all (Dyer et al, 1975; Raynor et al, 1981)
studies, raising the possibility that it is not high blood pressure or hypertension
per se that is generating the association. However, few investigators have data on
medication and blood pressure levels to allow them to explore this issue. In the present
study, the already weak blood pressure–cancer associations seen after controlling
for age were generally little altered when we added other factors to our regression
models. While information on those men taking medication for high blood pressure was
available, the prevalence at baseline was very low (1.5%), and there were insufficient
cancer deaths in this group to examine either the predictive value of blood pressure-lowering
drugs for cancer risk or explore their potential confounding effect.
We observed a positive relation between blood pressure and liver cancer. Many of these
malignancies would have been attributable to alcohol-induced cirrhosis of the liver,
a precipitating condition. Both systolic and diastolic blood pressure were positively
and incrementally related to liver cirrhosis deaths rates (rate ratio, 95% confidence
interval for 10 mmHg increase in systolic blood pressure; 1.21, 1.04–1.41, P [trend]=0.01).
This suggests that the positive blood pressure–liver cancer relation may be confounded
by alcohol consumption; however, we only have data on alcohol intake for a 10% subsample
of the cohort – too few to investigate this possibility. We are unaware of any other
studies to have examined the link between blood pressure and liver cancer, a scarcity
that is also apparent for pancreatic cancer and leukaemia.
In a small study of renal cancer patients, blood pressure levels normalised following
tumour removal (Lee, 1971); while in others (Kirchner et al, 1976; Melman et al, 1977)
the prevalence of renal cell carcinoma in hypertension patients exceeded that in the
general population. It is therefore plausible that, for this type of neoplasm, which
has been consistently linked with high blood pressure levels (Grossman et al, 2002),
the presence of tumours may raise blood pressure, rather than the reverse, so generating
a positive blood pressure–cancer association (Buck and Donner, 1987). In the present
analyses, risk of mortality from this cancer was also elevated in the high blood pressure
groups, but not significantly so. The high number of cancer deaths in the present
study afforded us the opportunity of exploring this issue in more depth. On excluding
deaths from renal cancer occurring in the first 10 years of follow-up, this association
was eliminated suggesting that reverse causality may be the underlying explanation.
This is also a likely justification for the blood pressure–leukaemia association.
In none of our analyses was either component of blood pressure related to mortality
from cancer of combined sites. Findings from other studies are inconsistent with positive
(Svardsudd and Tibblin, 1979; Goldbourt et al, 1986; Fraser et al, 1990; Filipovsky
et al, 1993) and null (Grove et al, 1991; Hole et al, 1993) associations reported.
Owing to its high incidence, lung cancer is the site-specific malignancy most commonly
examined in relation to blood pressure. In the present study, there was a weak, inverse
relation of systolic and diastolic blood pressure with lung cancer, a finding that
is, again, supported by some (Khaw and Barrett-Connor, 1984), but not all (Svardsudd
and Tibblin, 1979; Goldbourt et al, 1986), investigators.
To summarize, of the associations observed, blood pressure and liver cancer is likely
to be due to confounding by alcohol consumption, while blood pressure and leukaemia
is probably attributable to reverse causality, as described. For the remaining two
statistically significant relationships, rectal and pancreatic cancer were essentially
null for systolic blood pressure and barely reached statistical significance for diastolic
pressure. Given that we related 17 outcomes (the cancers plus total mortality, CHD,
and stroke) to two components of blood pressure, it is highly plausible that these
latter two associations are attributable to the play of chance, or, because of their
small magnitude, confounding by unmeasured factors, residual confounding by measured
factors, or both.
Limitations of the present study
In the present study, systolic and diastolic blood pressure were measured on a single
occasion, raising concerns about validity. We addressed this issue by relating these
exposures to coronary heart disease and stroke mortality, both of which have been
shown to be positively associated with systolic and diastolic blood pressure in a
pooling of individual level data for one million subjects (Lewington et al, 2002).
In the present analyses, as in earlier follow-ups of the same cohort (Lichtenstein
et al, 1985), the relationship between blood pressure and both these end points was
positive, incremental, and strong, suggesting our blood pressure data have predictive
validity. It is also likely that our blood pressure measurements would have changed
over 25 years of follow-up. Given that these fluctuations would have been non-differential
with respect to the outcome of interest, any reported associations would have been
weaker than the true, underlying relationships (Armstrong et al, 1994).
In conclusion, in this large-scale prospective investigation of male government employees
offering a large number of cases, an inverse association between blood pressure and
mortality from cancer of the pancreas and leukaemia was seen, while blood pressure
was positively related to liver and rectal cancer risk. That these relationships were
few among the many analyses we conducted, and of small magnitude, suggests that they
are likely to be due to chance and/or confounding rather than being real effects.