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      Rhamnus alaternus Plant: Extraction of Bioactive Fractions and Evaluation of Their Pharmacological and Phytochemical Properties

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          Abstract

          Rhamnus alaternus, is a wild-growing shrub, belonging to the Rhamnaceae family. Widely distributed in the Mediterranean basin , R. alaternus is used in the usual medicine in numerous countries, mostly Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Spain, France, Italy, and Croatia. A large number of disorders—including dermatological complications, diabetes, hepatitis, and goiter problems—can be treated by the various parts of R. alaternus (i.e., roots, bark, berries, and leaves). Several bioactive compounds were isolated from R. alaternus, including flavonoids, anthocyanins, and anthraquinones, and showed several effects such as antioxidant, antihyperlipidemic, antigenotoxic, antimutagenic, antimicrobial, and antiproliferative. This review summarizes the updated information concerning the botanical description, distribution, extraction processes applied on R. alaternus, and its ethnopharmacology, toxicity, phytochemistry, and pharmacological effects.

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          Rapid colorimetric assay for cellular growth and survival: Application to proliferation and cytotoxicity assays

          Tim R. Mosmann (1983)
          A tetrazolium salt has been used to develop a quantitative colorimetric assay for mammalian cell survival and proliferation. The assay detects living, but not dead cells and the signal generated is dependent on the degree of activation of the cells. This method can therefore be used to measure cytotoxicity, proliferation or activation. The results can be read on a multiwell scanning spectrophotometer (ELISA reader) and show a high degree of precision. No washing steps are used in the assay. The main advantages of the colorimetric assay are its rapidity and precision, and the lack of any radioisotope. We have used the assay to measure proliferative lymphokines, mitogen stimulations and complement-mediated lysis.
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            Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids

            T.P. Tim Cushnie, Andrew Lamb (2005)
            Flavonoids are ubiquitous in photosynthesising cells and are commonly found in fruit, vegetables, nuts, seeds, stems, flowers, tea, wine, propolis and honey. For centuries, preparations containing these compounds as the principal physiologically active constituents have been used to treat human diseases. Increasingly, this class of natural products is becoming the subject of anti-infective research, and many groups have isolated and identified the structures of flavonoids possessing antifungal, antiviral and antibacterial activity. Moreover, several groups have demonstrated synergy between active flavonoids as well as between flavonoids and existing chemotherapeutics. Reports of activity in the field of antibacterial flavonoid research are widely conflicting, probably owing to inter- and intra-assay variation in susceptibility testing. However, several high-quality investigations have examined the relationship between flavonoid structure and antibacterial activity and these are in close agreement. In addition, numerous research groups have sought to elucidate the antibacterial mechanisms of action of selected flavonoids. The activity of quercetin, for example, has been at least partially attributed to inhibition of DNA gyrase. It has also been proposed that sophoraflavone G and (−)-epigallocatechin gallate inhibit cytoplasmic membrane function, and that licochalcones A and C inhibit energy metabolism. Other flavonoids whose mechanisms of action have been investigated include robinetin, myricetin, apigenin, rutin, galangin, 2,4,2′-trihydroxy-5′-methylchalcone and lonchocarpol A. These compounds represent novel leads, and future studies may allow the development of a pharmacologically acceptable antimicrobial agent or class of agents.
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              Chemistry and Biological Activities of Flavonoids: An Overview

              Shashank Kumar, Abhay K. Pandey (2013)
              There has been increasing interest in the research on flavonoids from plant sources because of their versatile health benefits reported in various epidemiological studies. Since flavonoids are directly associated with human dietary ingredients and health, there is need to evaluate structure and function relationship. The bioavailability, metabolism, and biological activity of flavonoids depend upon the configuration, total number of hydroxyl groups, and substitution of functional groups about their nuclear structure. Fruits and vegetables are the main dietary sources of flavonoids for humans, along with tea and wine. Most recent researches have focused on the health aspects of flavonoids for humans. Many flavonoids are shown to have antioxidative activity, free radical scavenging capacity, coronary heart disease prevention, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities, while some flavonoids exhibit potential antiviral activities. In plant systems, flavonoids help in combating oxidative stress and act as growth regulators. For pharmaceutical purposes cost-effective bulk production of different types of flavonoids has been made possible with the help of microbial biotechnology. This review highlights the structural features of flavonoids, their beneficial roles in human health, and significance in plants as well as their microbial production.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Adriano Mollica: Role: Academic Editor
                Azzurra Stefanucci: Role: Academic Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Antioxidants (Basel)
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Antioxidants (Basel)
                Journal ID (publisher-id): antioxidants
                Title: Antioxidants
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2076-3921
                Publication date (Electronic): 16 February 2021
                Publication date Collection: February 2021
                Volume: 10
                Issue: 2
                Electronic Location Identifier: 300
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Process Engineering Laboratory for Sustainable Development and Health Products, Department of Process Engineering, National Polytechnic School of Constantine—Malek Bennabi, Constantine 25000, Algeria
                [2 ]Laboratoire Réactions et Génie des Procédés, CNRS, Université de Lorraine, F-54000 Nancy, France; fabrice.mutelet@ 123456univ-lorraine.fr
                [3 ]Laboratory of Process Engineering for the Environment (LIPE), Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Faculty of Process Engineering, Salah Boubnider University, Constantine 3, Constantine 25000, Algeria; akila.benaissa@ 123456univ-constantine3.dz
                Author notes
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2772-1556
                Article
                Publisher ID: antioxidants-10-00300
                DOI: 10.3390/antiox10020300
                PMC ID: 7920288
                PubMed ID: 33669348
                SO-VID: 5a3a9f84-6716-4eb0-96ee-6e630f358ada
                Copyright © © 2021 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 29 December 2020
                Date accepted : 11 February 2021
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                Keywords: rhamnus alaternus,extraction processes,phytochemistry,ethnopharmacology,phytotherapy,toxicity,bioactive compounds
                Data availability:
                Keywords: rhamnus alaternus, extraction processes, phytochemistry, ethnopharmacology, phytotherapy, toxicity, bioactive compounds

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