Chair: Meeta
Co-Chairs: Leela Digumarti, Neelam Agarwal, Nirmala Vaze, Rashmi Shah, Sonia Malik.
Advisory Board: Asha Kapadia, Atul Munshi, Duru Shah, Rama Vaidya, Saroj Srivastava,
Sonia Malik, Sunila Khandelwal, Urvashi Prasad Jha.
External Review Board: Anita Gadgil, Dayasagar, G R Sridhar, Hema Divakar, P K Shah,
Rakesh Sahay, Sanjay Kalra.
Resource Faculty: Alka Kumar, Anil Mahajan, Anita Kant, Anita Shah, Anu Vij, Archana
Tripathi, Asha Kapadia, Ashok Khurana, Atul Munshi, Bhavana Sheth, Bipasa Sen, C.
H. Trivedi, Chellamma V.K, Choranur Ambuja, Duru Shah, G Nagamani, Gurava A Reddy,
H. P. Pattanaik, Jaideep Malhotra, Jaishree Gajraj, Jignesh Shah, Jyothi Unni, Jyoti
Hak, Jyoti M Shah, Kaushal Chundawat, Lakshm Ratna, Lakshmi Seshadri, Leela Digumarti,
Madhukar Reddy, Mala Raj, Mandakini Parihar, Maninder Ahuja, Manjit Kaur Mohi, Meeta,
Monica Chauhan, Muzammil S. Shaikh, Navneet Magon, Navneet Takkar, Neelam Agarwal,
Nidhi Gupta, Nila A Mohile, Nirmala Vaze, Phagun N Shah, Preeti D Galvankar, Pushpa
Sethi, Rajesh S Kumar, Rama Vaidya, Ranu Patni, Rashmi Shah, Rekha Sharma, Renu Makwana,
Rita Shah, Rohit Shetty, Roza Olyai, Saroj Srivastava, Seema Sharma, Shailender Singh,
Sharad Kumar, Sharmila Pimple, Sheela V. Mane, Shobhana Mohandas, Sonal Bathla, Sonia
Malik, Sudha Sharma, Sudhakar Krishnamurti, Sunila Khandelwal, Surendra Shastri, Sushmita
Dave, Suvarna Khadilkar, Tanvir, Tripti Nagaria, Urvashi Prasad Jha, Urvashi Yavalkar,
Usha Rani Poli, Vandana Bansal, Yashodhara Pradeep.
INTRODUCTION
Guidelines are a method of translating the best available evidence into clinical,
communicable, organizational, and policy making statements in the hope of improving
health-care and/or policies. Unlike protocols, guidelines are meant to aid the clinician
in decision making. Do we need country-specific guidelines? Yes, we do, given the
fact that the model of health-care delivery system and the prevailing environment
of one country may not be extrapolated to that of another.
“Working with what you have, where you are, and not with what you wish for” is the
principle each one of us follow in clinical practice to give the best to our patients.
This guideline hopes to bridge the gap between evidence-based practice, backed by
scientific evidence and experience-based practice, based on the published and unpublished
Indian data and expert opinions. The target readers of the guidelines are the adult
women, members of the Indian Menopause Society (IMS), allied professionals, health-care
providers and policy makers.
India is a land of rich and diverse cultural heritage. It is a land of diversity in
terms of socio-economic, religion, culture, beliefs, education, and nutrition, urban,
rural, and geographical regions. The dilemmas and challenges are unique to different
regions, and solutions need to be planned accordingly. The specific issues pertaining
to Indian women include an early age of natural menopause, genetic, and environmental
influences, nutritional deficiencies and excesses resulting in physiological differences.
These factors contribute significantly to an increased incidence of diabetes, cardiovascular
disease, osteoporosis, and thyroid dysfunction. Genetic components are likely to play
a prominent role in these disorders; for example, polymorphisms in estrogen receptors
alpha and vitamin D receptor have been implicated in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis.
Indians are known to be deficient in vitamin B12, folic acid, and vitamin D. In India,
cancer cervix is the leading cause of genital cancers, and the peak incidence of breast
cancer occurs at an earlier age than the Caucasians. India has the problem of urbanization
bringing in new cultures and life-style leading to problems of obesity. There is a
change from the traditional food to stored fast food. In the urban areas, there is
breakdown of joint family system leading to nuclear families. The social support from
the family during the transitional phase and ageing is dwindling on one side, and
on the other side, life span has increased in the last two decades. The earlier age
at menopause has several implications and challenges for health-care in India. There
will be a large number of women who spend a substantial part of their life after menopause.
Health-care providers will need to initiate programs and provide appropriate care
for the large population of women living beyond menopause. In addition, attention
needs to be directed toward implementing programs that will help to sensitize and
increase awareness of menopause among women in India.
OBJECTIVES
To assist health-care practitioners in providing optimal and holistic care to the
women in transition phase.
To aid primary care physicians to decide when to refer patients with difficult problems
to the relevant specialists.
To sensitize the health-care professionals, policy makers toward the health of the
ageing woman and thus promote the concept of menopausal clinics.
To stimulate interest in research on all aspects of menopausal medicine.
METHODS
The planning to publishing of the document took 24 months. The core committee was
formed and a broad-based multi-disciplinary list of experts was invited to write on
the topic of their expertise. Majority of the reviews and deliberations were by e-mail.
A one day intensive contact program of the contributors was convened at Hyderabad
on September 8, 2012, and each topic was presented and deliberated upon. Consensus
was obtained by an automated response system. Finally, the document was validated
by an external review board.
The guideline is based on three previous documents released by the IMS and other global
guidelines on menopause management. Data were sourced from the electronic database
PubMed, MEDLINE, Cochrane Data-base of Systematic Reviews and published guidelines
on menopause management. The Appraisal of Guidelines Research and Evaluation,[1] instrument
was used to appraise published guidelines. Abstracts from papers and posters presented
at the National IMS meetings, published and unpublished studies, expert opinion was
considered. Cost-effectiveness of diagnosis and treatment is based on the available
market value.
System for grading: Evidence used in the document
The quality of evidence and the level of recommendation were done using the Grades
of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation system.[2]
Recommendations are based on strong evidence and, suggestions on experience-based
evidence. This method is adapted to unite the diverse conditions of India with the
best available data and the rich experience-based evidence from the experts.
Grades of evidence
High quality Grade A: Further research is very unlikely to change our confidence in
the estimate of effect.
Moderate quality Grade B: Further research is likely to have an important impact on
our confidence in the estimate of effect and may change the estimate.
Low quality Grade C: Further research is very likely to have an important impact on
our confidence in the estimate of effect and is likely to change the estimate.
Very low quality Grade D: We are very uncertain about the estimate.
Strength of recommendation
In terms of the strength of the recommendation, strong recommendations use the phrase
“recommend,” and weak recommendations use the phrase “suggest.”
Research questions are placed at the end of each chapter in the monogram.
Benefits of using the guidelines
Benefits of using this guidelines are (i) improved quality of care (ii) Early detection
and management of non-communicable disease (iii) understanding the urgent need of
conducting preventive health programs by all stakeholders related to women’s health,
and (iv) additionally, in view of the great lacunae in Indian data, it is hoped that
the guidelines will help stimulate interest in research in various aspects of menopause.
CONCLUSIONS
The onus of developing specialty menopause clinics akin to antenatal clinics in the
private and public sectors besides developing management of menopause as a medical
specialty within obstetrics and gynecology care lies with the government and non-government
organizations. Meanwhile, the aim of the guideline is to provide a resource book to
aid the busy clinician in extending optimal care to the aging woman. The guideline
is no doubt limited by the paucity of robust research evidence in India due to various
factors, but effort has been directed to tailor the recommendations to the diverse
Indian scenario with the best available evidence.
This is one of the endeavors of the IMS to work toward the slogan “Fit @ Forty, Strong
@ Sixty, Independent @ Eighty.”
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We thank the experts who took time out of their busy family life, academics, and work
to contribute to the document on management of menopause in India. A special thanks
to Dr. Shaantanu Donde, Dr. Ganesh Uchit for sourcing the data.
DISSEMINATION OF THE GUIDELINE
Executive Summary and Recommendations is available on the IMS website www.indianmenopausesociety.org.com.
indianmenopausesociety.org.com It is published in the Journal of midlife, official
publication of the IMS. M/s Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers are our partners in
publishing the monogram on the clinical practice guidelines on menopause.
Revision of the guideline
It is recommended that the Guidelines are upgraded every 5 years.
Editorial independence
The views expressed are independent of any extraneous influences.
REFERENCES
Agree Next Steps Consortium. The Agree II Instrument [Electronic version], 2009. Available
from: http://www.agreetrust.org. [Last accessed on 2012 Feb 10].
Atkins D, Best D, Briss PA, Eccles M, Falck.Ytter Y, Flottorp S. Grading quality of
evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ 2004;328:1490.
SECTION I
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
1. Menopause is a transition phase from the reproductive to the non-reproductive phase
in a woman’s life.[1] It is nature’s protective phenomenon against reproductive morbidity
and mortality in the ageing population. Today, we are aware that menopause has much
wider implications than simply loss of fertility. It sets the stage for ageing and
accelerates the process of non-communicable disorders.
2. Menopause is diagnosed retrospectively by history. Markers for diagnosis of menopause
are preferably restricted for use in special situations and for fertility issues.
Levels of (FSH) Folllicular Stimulating Hormone > 10 IU/L are indicative of declining
ovarian function. FSH levels > 20 IU/L are diagnostic of ovarian failure in the peri-menopausal
age group with vasomotor symptoms (VMS) even in the absence of cessation of menstruation.
FSH levels > 40 IU/L done 2 months apart is diagnostic of menopause. Anti-mullerian
hormone becomes undetectable, inhibin levels fall, and antral follicular count and
ovarian volume decreases at menopause. Menstrual irregularity is the only objective
marker to define and establish the menopause transition.[2]
TERMINOLOGY
3. Natural or spontaneous menopause: It is recognized to have occurred after 12 months
of amenorrhea for which there are no obvious pathological and physiological causes.
It is a retrospective diagnosis. It occurs due to depletion of ovarian follicles resulting
in near complete, but natural diminution of ovarian hormone secretion. There is no
independent biological marker for menopause.[3
4
5]
4. Pre-menopause: It is often used to refer the entire reproductive period, up to
the final menstrual period.[4]
5. Peri-menopause: It is the period immediately prior to and up to 1 year after the
final menstrual period. It may last for 3-5 years. The characteristics are increased
blood levels of FSH, anovulatory cycles, significantly reduced fertility and erratic
menstrual periods, and onset of symptoms. This term is used interchangeably with menopause
transition.[4
5]
6. Menopause transition: It is the term coined by Stages of Reproductive Aging Workshop
(STRAW) group, and during this period, disturbed menstrual cycle and endocrine changes
are observed.[5]
7. Climacteric: Literally, it means the rungs of a ladder. It is interchangeable with
peri-menopause and menopause transition. When associated with symptoms, it is termed
as the climacteric syndrome. This term is preferably not to be used in scientific
papers.[4]
8. Post-menopause: It is the span of time dating from the final menstrual period,
regardless of whether the menopause was spontaneous or iatrogenic.[5]
9. Senescence: It is the period after the age of 60 years.[3]
10. Premature menopause: It is the spontaneous menopause occurring two standard deviations
(SDs) below the mean estimated age for the reference population. Traditionally, it
is considered to be below the age of 40 years.[4
5] We may consider it as occurring below 38 years*.
11. Induced menopause: Cessation of menstruation that follows bilateral oophorectomy
or iatrogenic ablation of ovarian function.[4]
12. Temporary menopause: It is a term preferably not to be used, since definition
of menopause is complete cessation of menstruation. Rarely, ovarian function is interrupted
for a period of time and later resumes.[4]
13. Early menopause: It is the time span between the spontaneous or iatrogenic menopause
occurring between the age of 40 years and the accepted typical age of menopause for
a given population.
14. Delayed menopause: It is not defined but may be important in terms of the increased
problems associated with the hyperestrogenism and is used in this guideline. It is
two SDs above from the natural average age of menopause in a given population. We
may consider it to be beyond 54 years*.
*We need population-based studies to derive at the cut off values.
15. Post-menopausal bleeding (PMB): It is the occurrence of vaginal bleeding following
a woman’s final menstrual cycle and not on cyclical hormone therapy. However, vaginal
bleeding that occurs 6 months after amenorrhea should be considered suspicious and
warrants investigation.
16. Staging system: The staging system of a physiological event is to improve comparability
of strategies and facilitate clinical decision making. In 1997, Behram Ankelesaria
in India, published a simple method of staging of menopause to understand and deal
with the problems of the transition phase and beyond.[6
7] STRAW (2001) aimed to classify the woman’s life in three phases: Reproductive,
menopause transition, and post-menopause based on the menstrual cycle, endocrine parameters,
and ovarian reserve markers. This was applicable only to healthy women.[5] 2012 STRAW
+ 10- provides a greater clarity for menstrual pattern and is applicable to most women,
except for those with premature ovarian failure (POF).[8]
17. The life expectancy in India has taken a quantum jump from 30 years in 1940s to
61 years in 1990s. According to the world health organization’s (WHO’s) health statistics
2011, in India an average female life expectancy in 2011 is 68 years and is projected
an increase to 73 years by 2021.
18. The estimated mean age of menopause is 46 years in India, and is lower than that
of the Caucasians.[9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26] From the available Indian data, it is hypothesized that an early age of menopause
predisposes a woman to chronic health disorders a decade earlier than a Caucasian
woman. It is reported that osteoporotic fractures occur 10-20 years earlier in Indians
compared to Caucasians.[27
28] The first myocardial infarction attack occurs in 4.4% of Asian women at a younger
age than in European women.[29] In India Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (DM) occurs a decade
earlier than the Caucasians.[30] Breast cancer incidence peaks before the age of 50
years.[31] Cervical cancer is leading cause of mortality due to cancers in women.
The highest age specific incidence rate of 98.2/100,000 for cancer cervix was seen
in the 60-64 year age group.[32]
19. The burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in India is projected to increase by
115% from 1990 to 2020,[33] and cerebrovascular incidence by 104%.[34] The migrant
population from the Indian subcontinent in the UK is known to be at a significantly
higher risk of developing diabetes and CVD.[35] The mean bone mineral density (BMD)
in India is about two SDs lower than in women in the western population.[36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45] The prevalence of low bone mass is to the extent of 40% from the age of 40 years
and increases to more than 62% by age 60 years and 80% by the age of 65 years.[46
46
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66] The above facts indicate the need to have well planned cost effective systems
in place to promote a healthy and an active ageing population.
INDIVIDUALIZED PLAN FOR MENOPAUSE
20. Each woman needs an individualized health plan management. It is most important
to distinguish between a symptomatic and an asymptomatic menopausal woman. Women may
present at the menopausal clinic with menstrual problems, menopausal symptoms or request
for a general health check-up, or as an opportunistic contact to be picked up by the
health professional [Flowchart 1 and 2].[67
68
69
70
71]
Flowchart 1
The Physician’s role and approach
Flowchart 2
Issues in symptomatic women
SECTION II
SYMPTOMS OF MENOPAUSE, ISSUES RELATED TO MENOPAUSE TRANSITION, AND AGEING
Fertility
21. After the age of 30 years, if a woman does not conceive naturally within 6 months,
the couple should have an infertility work-up (Grade B).
22. In women with a single ovary, previous ovarian surgery, poor response to Gonadotropins,
previous exposure to chemotherapy or radiation, or unexplained infertility should
undergo ovarian reserve testing even before the age 30 years and in all women it is
done beyond ≥ 30 years (R: Grade B).
23. In women > 40 years who do not conceive within 1 to 2 cycles of controlled ovarian
hyperstimulation, (IVF) In vitro Fertilization should be considered (Grade B).
24. The only effective treatment for ovarian ageing is oocyte donation. A woman with
decreased ovarian reserve should be offered oocyte donation as an option as pregnancy
rates associated with this treatment are significantly higher than those associated
with controlled ovarian hyperstimulation or In vitro fertilization with a woman’s
own eggs (Grade B).
25. The risk of spontaneous pregnancy loss and chromosomal abnormalities increases
with age, and the couple need to be counseled on this aspect (Grade B).
26. Preconception counseling with an emphasis on optimal general health, screening
for medical conditions such as hypertension, diabetes, and pregnancy-related risks
should be addressed for women of more than 40 years (Grade B).
Contraception
27. Pregnancies in elderly women are associated with higher maternal and perinatal
morbidity and mortality. There is an increased risk of fetal malformations. This can
also lead to psychological and potential domestic and social consequences.
28. Pattern of contraception use in the age group of 35-49 years in different countries
Table 1.[72
73
74
75]
Table 1
Percent pattern of contraception use in the age group of 35-49 years in different
countries
29. The annual risk of deaths associated with using no method of contraception far
exceeds that for use of any method among all age groups Table 2.[73]
Table 2
Risk of deaths with contraception compared to no contraceptive method
30. Sterilization: It is highly effective, safe and a single act, case fatality rate
with tubectomy is 1-2/100,000 procedures. However, it is a permanent method. Vasectomy
is even safer except for minor complications (Grade A).
31. Oral contraceptives pill (OCPs): These are effective, easy to use, and reversible.
Low-dose OCPs have non-contraceptives health benefits with an increased safety profile
(Grade A).
32. For women, above the age of 35, careful personal and family history, and accurate
measurement of blood pressure (BP), breast examination, screening for diabetes, and
lipid profile should be performed (Grade A).
33. Healthy women of normal weight, non-users of tobacco, doing well on a combination
contraceptive pill can continue this method until the age of menopause and up to a
year or two later, after analyzing the risks and benefits (Grade B).
34. If oral contraceptives are continued before major surgery, heparin prophylaxis
should be considered (Grade B).
35. Administration of OCPs in normal eumenorrheic women has no effect on BMD and bone
metabolism. Conversely, depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA), is associated with
bone loss, which returns to normal, after stopping DMPA. Yet, caution needs to be
exercised in women at a high-risk of osteoporosis. Short- or long-term use of DMPA
in healthy women should not be considered as an indication for dual X-ray energy absorptiometry
(DXA) or other tests that assess BMD (Grade C).
36. Change over from oral contraceptive to Hormone Therapy (HT) is carried out at
an arbitrary, age of 45-50 years or if serum FSH: (LH) Luetinising Hormone ratio of
> 1, FSH > 30 IU/L (Grade B).
37. Progesterone only contraceptive is an ideal method in women with a past history
of venous thromboembolism (VTE) and gallstones. Limitations are erratic and scanty
periods. The levonorgesterol -Intra Uterine System (LNG-IUS) - this is correct apart
from being used as a hormonal contraception is most effective hormonal therapy for
heavy menstrual bleeding and for treating bleeding disturbances associated with endometrial
hyperplasia (Grade B).
38. Intra-uterine contraceptive devices (IUCDs) are effective, but sometimes can cause
menorrhagia and dysmenorrhea (Grade B).
39. Emergency contraception is an effective emergency method, but it is not as effective
and consistent as the use of other contraceptive (Grade C).
Perimenopausal bleeding
40. It is suggested to incorporate the use of PALM-COEIN (polyp, adenomyosis, leiomyoma,
malignancy and hyperplasia, coagulopathy, ovulatory dysfunction, endometrial, iatrogenic,
and not yet classified) classification for abnormal uterine bleeding (Grade C).
41. Common cause are anovulatory bleeding, leiomyoma, endometrial, polyp, endometrial
hyperplasia, and endometrial cancer (EC).[76]
42. Substantial evidence exists to indicate that sonohysterography is superior to
transvaginal ultrasonography (TVS) in the detection of intra-cavitary lesions, such
as polyps and submucosal leiomyomas (Grade A).
43. Endometrial tissue sampling should be performed in patients with (AUB) Abnormal
Uterine Bleeding who are older than 40 years (Grade C).
44. TVS is the primary screening test for AUB, and Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
should be considered when the diagnosis is inconclusive (Grade C).
45. Persistent bleeding with a previous benign pathology, such as proliferative endometrium,
requires further testing to rule out focal endometrial pathology or a structural pathology,
such as a polyp or leiomyoma (R: Grade B).
46. Management depends on the cause, cost benefit analysis of therapy and the patient’s
choice (R: Grade C).
PMB
47. PMB is defined as uterine bleeding occurring after at least 1 year of amenorrhea.
Its incidence is about 10-15%.
48. Women with PMB have a 10-15% chance of having EC. Conversely, 90% of the EC in
the post-menopausal period present with PMB. Hence, immediate evaluation is required.
49. Common cause of PMB is due to atrophic changes in the vagina and the endometrium.
50. A detailed clinical and drug history is important as some over the counter drugs
like “Ginseng” can cause PMB.
51. A through clinical examination is carried out to rule out cervical, vulval and
vaginal cancer, atrophic vaginitis, urinary, and anal causes for bleeding.
52. Women with PMB may be assessed initially with TVS, an endometrial biopsy (Grade
A).
53. Endometrial thickness is measured as the maximum anterior – posterior thickness
of the endometrial echo on a long-axis transvaginal view of the uterus.
54. Women with PMB with an endometrial thickness of ≤ 4 mm in transvaginal scan do
not require endometrial sampling unless they are at a high-risk for endometrial carcinoma
or bleeding is episodic.
55. If endometrial thickness is > 4 mm in TVS, it is important to consider endometrial
sampling. In women with homogeneous and normal morphology, women on HT and hypertensive
medication, the acceptable combined thickness is 6 mm.
56. A focal increased echogenicity or a diffuse heterogenecity in the endometrium
even in a thin endometrium warrants further investigations.
57. Out-patient endometrial sampling devices such as Pipelle and out-patient hysteroscopy
can be carried out wherever possible.
58. If the endometrial biopsy tissue is reported as insufficient for diagnosis, and
endometrial thickness on transvaginal ultrasonography is less than 4 mm, follow-up
is sufficient. Recurrent episodes warrant’s further investigations.
59. Dilatation and curettage and fractional curettage are useful in low resource settings.
Saline infusion sonography and 3D (USG) Ultrasonography play a limited role in PMB
evaluation.
Quality of life (QOL)
60. The WHO defines QOL as an individual’s perception of their position in life in
the context of the culture and value system in which they live and in relation to
their goals, expectations, standards, and concerns. The two terms in common usage
are global QOL and health-related Quality of life (HRQOL). WHO- Several questionnaires
are used to assess HRQOL.
61. QOL as it relates to menopausal women is usually referring to health-related QOL,
taking into account a woman’s symptoms.[77
78] Commonly used are Greene Climacteric Scale, Women’s Health Questionnaire, Menopause
Rating Scale and Utian Quality of Life Scale.
62. When evaluating drug therapies, besides safety, and efficacy, it is important
to know the effect of the drug on QOL.[79]
63. Some studies show that low dose horm replacement therapy (HRT) significantly improves
overall measures of QOL in early menopause.
64. Some studies show that low dose HT significantly improves overall measures of
QOL. HT had mixed effects on QOL among older women from the (HERS) Heart and Estrogen/Progesterone
Replacement Study trial, whereas the Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) trial investigators
found that estrogen plus progestin did not have a clinically meaningful effect on
HRQOL.
65. An Indian study has shown an improvement in QOL in women receiving tibolone.[80]
VMS
66. In a multi-centric hospital, urban-based study conducted by the Indian Menopause
Society (IMS), the incidence of VMS was found to be 75%.[50] There is a wide variation
in prevalence of symptom reporting, ranging from 19% to 75% from various studies conducted
in India.[81
82
83
84
85
86] The prevalence in UK Asians was reported as 71%,[87] and in Australian Indians
as 33%.[26]
67. VMS present as hot flushes, cold sweats, and night sweats. VMS may be reported
in the menopause transition, reach the maximum intensity during the first 2 years
post-menopause and then declines over time. VMS generally last for 6 months to 2 years,
although some may experience for 10 years or longer. We need to exclude other causes
of flushing before planning treatment.
68. Grading of VMS is important to plan management, follow-up and for research. Grades
of hot flashes are classified as: Mild – feeling of heat without sweating; moderate
– feeling of heat with sweating; and severe – feeling of heat with sweating and palpitation
that disrupts usual activity.
69. Life-style modifications may be recommended to reduce mild VMS (Grade A).
70. The most effective treatment for VMS is HT (Grade A) Ref Section V.
71. Low dose oral contraceptive pills can be used in the menopause transition phase
for relief of symptoms (Grade A).
72. Non-hormonal prescription agents may relieve VMS, but have their own side-effects.
These can be considered when HT is contraindicated or not desired (Level 1B).
73. Complementary and alternative treatments should be advised with caution as the
data are still insufficient especially in moderate to severe VMS (Level 1B).
Urogenital symptoms
74. The prevalence of urogenital symptoms in the post-menopause in the IMS study was
15%.[50] It presents as vaginal dryness in 32%, pruritus vulvae 10-17%, dyspareunia,
and urinary urgency 10%.[88
89] It is due to urogenital atrophy as a result of declining estrogen levels and may
also present as recurrent urinary tract infections.[90] Though it effects the QOL,
women in general do not complain about it; hence, suggestive questions need to be
posed during history taking.
75. Physical signs of vulvovaginal atrophy are variable and include reduced vulval
fat, reduced vaginal rugae, and blood flow leading to a pale appearance; a change
from moderately acidic range (pH 3.5-5.0) to a neutral range (pH 6.0-8.0) in vaginal
pH, there is a shift in the vaginal maturation index.
76. Vaginal lubricants can be recommended for subjective symptom improvement of dyspareunia
(Grade C).
77. Vaginal moisturizers can be offered for vaginal dryness and dyspareunia (Grade
A).
78. Estrogen therapy (ET) – Ref Section V 241-245.
79. Lifestyle modification, bladder drill, and pelvic floor exercises are recommended
for urinary incontinence (Grade B).
Sexual problems
80. A woman’s sexual response to her partner is significantly related to her baseline
feelings for the partner, their relationship qualities, and partner’s age and health.
81. Sexual dysfunction is multifactorial and needs to be addressed accordingly.
82. Vaginal atrophy with ageing leads to dyspareunia.[88] Dyspareunia leading to sexual
dysfunction is corrected by local ET.
83. Acquired sexual desire disorder in some women responds to testosterone therapy.
Formulations of testosterone for use in women are not available in India. Testosterone
preparations meant for males should not be prescribed for women. Tibolone is a good
option; since, it contains androgenic activity and can be used to treat libido problems.
Non-communicable diseases
CVD
84. The incidence of CVD in Indian women has been noted to have significantly risen.
The projected death’s from CVDs by 2020 is estimated to be 42% of the total deaths.
The prevalence rate of stroke is 545.1/100,000 persons. The case fatality rate is
41% in 30 days.[91
92] The prevalence of hypertension is 20.4-22% in the urban area and 12-17% in rural
area.[93] From the Indian Million Death Study 2009, CVD emerges as the major cause
of mortality, 16.8% in the rural and 28.6% in the Urban area. 79% of sudden cardiac
deaths in rural South India occurred at home.[94]
85. Risk factors – Ref Section IV Clinical Evaluation - 212, 215.
86. Prevention and management
Life-style interventions (Grade A).
Encourage optimal BP < 120/80 through life-style approaches (Grade A).
Pharmacotherapy if BP ≥ 140/90 to avoid end-organ damage, more so in diabetes (Grade
A).
Use thiazide diuretics unless there is an absolute contraindication. Optimal lipid
targets (Grade A).
Low density lipoprotein (LDL) < 100 mg/dL, high density lipoprotein (HDL) > 50 mg/dL,
triglycerides < l50 mg/dL, non-HDL cholesterol < 100 mg/dL (Grade A).
High-risk: Initiate statin if LDL > 100 mg/dL (Grade A).
Inter-mediate risk: Initiate statin if LDL > 130 mg/dL (Grade A).
Life-style approaches and pharmacotherapy to achieve near-normal HbAlc Glycosylated
Haemoglobin (<7%) in women with diabetes (Grade A).
Aspirin in high-risk women (75-162 mg/day) (Grade A).
Routine use of aspirin in women < 65 years of age is not recommended for Ml prevention
(Grade C).
HT is not indicated solely for primary or secondary cardio protection (Grade B).
Do not use antioxidant supplements for CVD prevention (Grade C).
Do not use folic acid, with or without B6 or B12 supplements for CVD prevention (Grade
C).
The metabolic syndrome: Insulin resistance (IR)
87. The prevalence reported in the peri-menopause in India is 22.2% rising to 32.2%
to 48% in the post-menopuse.[95
96] It is 1.5-2 times more common in women than in men.
88. The metabolic syndrome is also known as IR syndrome and syndrome X and an average
of 40% of the Indian women are affected.
89. Clinical conditions associated with IR include type 2 diabetes, CVD, polycystic
ovary syndrome (PCOS), non-alcoholic fatty liver, obstructive sleep apnoea, and certain
cancers. It is also a prominent feature of the metabolic syndrome.
90. Diagnosis of metabolic syndrome: Abdominal obesity defined as > 35 inches in females;
serum triglycerides > 150 mg/dL; BP > 130/85 mmHg; and fasting plasma glucose > 110
mg/dL.
91. Effect of HT: A meta-analysis of pooled data from 107 trials concluded that HT
reduced IR, abdominal obesity, new-onset diabetes, lipids, BP, adhesion molecules,
and procoagulant factors in women without diabetes and reduced fasting glucose and
IR in women with diabetes. The effects were diminished by the addition of progestin
(Grade A).
92. The basis of dietary recommendations is to reduce exposure to insulin both as
a result of dietary stimulus and through decreased IR (Grade B).
93. We should advocate exercise as it improves insulin sensitivity, aiming for a minimum
of 30 min of moderate physical activity/exercise per day.
94. Indications for intervention by Body mass index (BMI) category [Table 3].
Table 3
BMI category
DM
95. India has 63 million people with diabetes and is second largest in numbers, the
first being China. The prevalence rates of diabetes in the last 30 years has increased
from 2.3% in urban and 1.2% in rural areas (1971) to 15-20% in urban and 10% in rural
areas (2012).The prevalence in hospital based multi-centric study by the IMS in post-menopausal
woman was 12%. In India, Type 2 DM occurs a decade earlier than the Caucasians. More
than 50% of the subjects are undiagnosed.[97]
96. Risk factors: Ref Section IV - 213.
97. Screening: Opportunistic screening for all women above the age of 30 years, every
3 years for younger women with risk factors (Grade C). Diabetic women should be screened
for hypertension, dyslipidemia, micro-albuminuria, and undergo yearly eye check.
98. The goal in management is to maintain the HbA1c around < 7% and control risk factors
for CVD.
99. It may be indicated to evaluate the endometrium by transvaginal scan before starting
HT.
Thyroid disease
100. The prevalence from hospital-based data in post-menopausal women for hypothyroid
in India is 3-7%.[50
98]
101. Hypothyroidism is much more common in older than younger individuals. Symptoms
and signs include lethargy, constipation, dry skin, alopecia, memory impairment, and
depression. The individual is often obese and may have elevated cholesterol.
102. The prevalence of hypothyroidism is approximately 5% in otherwise healthy individuals.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is a good screening test.
Anemia
103. Anemia is common in the elderly people in India. Prevalence of iron-deficiency
anemia, vitamin B12 deficiency, and folate deficiency is common, and should be an
integral part of management of menopause.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Dementia
104. In 2010, there are 3.7 million Indians with dementia, 2.1 million women and 1.5
million men and the total societal costs is about 14,700 crore. While the numbers
are expected to double by 2030, costs would increase 3 times. Prevalence of dementia
is 0.6-3.5% in rural India and 0.9-4.8% in Urban India.[99]
105. The core mental functions are memory, communication and language, ability to
focus and pay attention, reasoning and judgment, activities of daily living, and visual
perception. Impairment of any two functions is suggestive of dementia (B).
106. Many dementias are progressive, early diagnosis allows a person to get the maximum
benefit from available treatments and provides an opportunity to plan for the future
(B).
107. Factors that increase the risk of dementia are family history, genetic factor
apolipoprotein E (APOE), minimal cognitive impairment (MCI), CVD risk factors, physical
inactivity, diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, smoking, obesity, autoimmune diseases,
depression and stress, social engagement and diet, head trauma and traumatic brain
injury, and age (Grade B).
108. An objective marker is examination of (CSF) cerebrospinal fluid for amyloid beta
or tau protein and phosphorylated tau protein concentration. They have the sensitivity
of between 94% and 100% (A).
109. ET is not currently recommended for reducing risk of dementia developing in post-menopausal
women or retarding the progress of diagnosed AD (A).
110. For best preservation of memory and cognition, women should be advised about
the importance of good overall health, good cardiac and vascular health, exercise,
maintenance of active mind, avoidance of excessive alcohol consumption, and measures
to reduce risk of diabetes and hypertension. HT is not indicated for neuroprotection
(A).
111. Introduction of accessible diagnostic and early stage dementia care services
such as memory clinics is recommended (Grade C).
Sleep
In a study conducted in UK Asians, sleep problems were noted in 32%. A large study
of over 9,000 older adults age of > 65 year found that 42% of participants reported
difficulty initiating and maintaining sleep.[100] The estimate of prevalence of sleep
disorders in India, by WHO extrapolated from US data is 156,628,027 in 1,065,070,607
population.
112. A detailed assessment of menopausal symptoms should always include questions
about sleep pattern. Sleep questionnaires or sleep diaries can be useful to assess
sleep in detail (Grade C).
113. Adverse life-style factors, social factors, and risk factors should be considered
and treated accordingly (Grade C).
114. If insomnia is identified, medical or psychiatric causes of insomnia should be
ruled out and if present, treated accordingly. If specific neurological or breathing
disorders are suspected, further investigations and referrals to specialists should
be initiated (Grade B).
115. Sleep hygiene measures and life-style modifications should be recommended as
first line of treatment. Psychological treatments such as (CBT) Cognitive Behavioral
Therapy should also be considered (Grade C).
116. If insomnia is resistant to life-style modifications, then hypnotics, benzodiazepines
or melatonin agonists can be used in the short-term, but there is no definite or convincing
evidence to suggest its efficacy. These should only be prescribed by supervision or
after liaison with psychiatrists or sleep experts (Grade C).
117. No recommendations can be made about use of herbal remedies for insomnia as there
is insufficient evidence. Mind body therapies such as yoga and tai chi have some evidence,
but need further rigorous studies to prove its effectiveness (Grade D).
SKELETOMUSCULAR SYSTEM
Osteoporosis
Basic concepts
118. WHO defines osteoporosis as “a systemic skeletal disease characterized by low
bone mass (measured as BMD) and microarchitectural deterioration of bone tissue with
a consequent increase in bone fragility and susceptibility to fracture and involves
the wrist, spine, hip, pelvis, ribs or humerus.”[101] The National Institute of Health
definition is “a disease characterized by decreased bone strength and propensity to
fall.”[102]
119. The diagnosis of an osteoporotic fracture, the clinical end-point of osteoporosis
is by the presence of fragility fracture (clinical or by investigation) and or by
BMD [Table 4].
Table 4
WHO BMD (T-score) based diagnosis of osteoporosis for postmenopausal women
120. The “gold standard” method of BMD testing is by DXA. Its value is expressed in
SD units from the population mean in young adults (T-score) or from the mean in an
age-matched population (Z-score). The reference range recommended by the International
Osteoporosis Foundation, International Society of Clinical Densitometry, WHO and National
Osteoporosis Foundation for calculating the T-score in post-menopausal women is the
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III reference database in Caucasian
women aged 20-29 years for BMD (T-score) based diagnosis of osteoporosis for post-menopausal
women WHO.[103
104]
121. The Z-score describes the number of SDs by which the BMD in an individual differs
from the mean value expected for age and sex. It is mostly used in children adolescents
and pre-menopausal women. A Z-score below - 2 is regarded as abnormal and should be
referred to as “low for age.” A low Z-score in a post-menopausal woman indicates the
need to evaluate for secondary osteoporosis.
122. Osteoporosis is classified as primary and secondary
Primary osteoporosis is seen in post-menopausal women in whom there is no specific
pathogenetic mechanism other than age. There is an accelerated bone loss at the rate
of 2-5% per year due to declining estrogens levels and is seen in the first 5-7 years
after menopause. Later age-related bone loss occurs at a rate of 1% per year in both
sexes and affects the cortical and trabecular bone.
Secondary osteoporosis is due to specific causes.
123. Bone is a dynamic tissue with a continuous remodeling leading to formation of
new bone and absorption of old bone. A mismatch of this process forms the basis for
osteoporosis while defective mineralization of the newly formed osteoid is called
osteomalacia.
124. A fragility fracture has been defined by the WHO as “a fracture caused by injury
that would be insufficient to fracture normal bone: The result of reduced compressive
and/or torsional strength of bone.”
125. Clinically, a fragility fracture can be defined as one that occurs as a result
of minimal trauma, such as a fall from a standing height or less or no identifiable
trauma.
Screening and diagnosis
126. Osteoporosis is asymptomatic unless a fracture occurs. Early diagnosis in the
asymptomatic period is and timely management of osteoporosis will prevent the associated
morbidity and mortality. In the absence of a validated population screening tool for
post-menopausal osteoporosis in India, a case finding strategy utilizing clinical
risk factors with the addition of DXA as needed is suggested (Grade C).
127. Opportunistic screening for women above 40 years is suggested. Risk assessment
factors for fractures are derived by history and clinical examination.
128. It is important to distinguish between those risk factors, which lead to reduced
bone mass from those which predispose to osteoporotic fractures with a BMD not in
the osteoporotic range.
129. Major risk factors defined by WHO are advancing age, prior fragility fracture,
low BMI, family history of fracture, smoking, and more than three drinks of alcohol
per day (Grade A).
130. Environmental factors include nutrition (calcium intake using the quick dietary
calculator, protein) physical activity and sunlight exposure, which are important
modifiable risk factors in India. Relevance of risk of falling increases with ageing
(Grade B).
131. Case finding for secondary osteoporosis is practiced in high-risk disease subgroups,
such as chronic glucocorticoid users and patients with rheumatoid arthritis, collagen
vascular disease, or inflammatory bowel disease, hypogonadism, thyroid dysfunction,
type 2 diabetes (Grade A).
132. Women presenting with fracture complain of severe pain, which is sudden in onset
with minimal trauma, or chronic pain localized to the mid back, may radiate to the
abdomen. Generalized bone pain indicates osteomalacia or metastasis.
133. Physical examination should include the height and weight annually, check for
balance and gait, get up, and go test by asking the women to get up from the chair
without using their arms. Kyphosis and dowgers hump is seen in the late stage of osteoporosis
(Grade A).
134. Laboratory studies [Table 5]
Table 5
Essential R (Grade A)
135. The fracture risk assessment tool (WHO FRAX)
For online use is available for India (http: www.shef.ac.uk/FRAX). FRAX is a validated
and widely accepted tool used world-wide to identify patients in the osteopenia group
most likely to benefit from treatment. It predicts the 10 year absolute risk for a
fracture in an individual and the cost-effective analysis determines the interventional
threshold above which treatment is cost effective. All this is possible and valid
when adequate data on the prevalence of osteoporotic fractures, mortality rates, and
health economics data are available for the country. FRAX is country specific, and
until more Indian data is available on the prevalence of osteoporotic fractures and
mortality rates, the usage of FRAX in the Indian context for uniform guidance on intervention
threshold is to be applied cautiously. Having said that, an enormous advantage of
FRAX is that it can be used without BMD also to identify cases at risk for fractures.
In view of the limited availability of (DXA) Dual Energy Xray Absorptiometry machines
in India, it will be helpful to use FRAX without BMD in Indian context. Given the
heterogenecity of Indian scenario, intervention thresholds and management may need
to be individualized (Grade C).
136. Heterogeneity in different regions of the country and the prevalence of nutritional
and other risk factors unique to the Indian population have not been considered in
the calculation of FRAX (R: Grade B).
137. It is suggested to conduct central DXA of spine and hip in all women 5 years
beyond the natural age of menopause and in women than 5 years since menopause with
1 high clinical risk or more than 2 clinical risk factors. This suggestion is based
on the following. Early age of natural menopause that is 46.7 years in Indian women,[10]
life expectancy of a woman is 68 years (WHO statistics 2011), accrual of low peak
bone mass,[38] early age of presentation of fracture,[27
39] accelerated bone loss in the immediate 5 years of menopause and the trabecular
bone is affected more.[43] Stratification by age shows that the prevalence of low
bone mass is to the extent of 40% from the age of 40 years and increases to more than
80% by the age of 65 years (Grade C).
138. Indications for DXA (Grade B):
All post-menopausal women more than 5 years of menopause.
Women with fragility fractures.
Post-menopausal women less than 5 years of menopause with risk factors.
Women in menopause transition with secondary causes.
Radiological evidence of osteopenia and presence of vertebral compression fracture.
Before initiating pharmacotherapy for osteoporosis.
To monitor therapy - the interval to the next test should depend on the calculated
individual risk and would mostly be scheduled between 1 years and 5 years later.
Emerging indications are to measure total body fat and lean tissue mass.
139. The diagnosis is based on central DXA of the spine, total hip, and neck of femur.
If this is not feasible, lower one-third of the radius (33%) is measured. The Caucasian
female normative database is used as a reference for T-scores (R: Grade A).
140. The lowest BMD score obtained from all sites is used for diagnosis (R: Grade
A).
141. Screen post-menopausal women for secondary osteoporosis if history or examination
show systemic disease or low Z-scores on DEXA (R: Grade A).
142. R peripheral DEXA (X-ray based) may be used as a mass screening tool because
of its high negative predictive value (R: Grade C).
Management
143. Involves a population and a personalized-based approach. The target is primary
prevention (population-based), intervention, and rehabilitation (individualized).
144. Fracture risk is obtained by BMD (both primary and secondary causes) and the
presence of clinical risk factors for osteoporotic fracture. For treatment purpose,
combining BMD with clinical risk factors provides a better estimate of fracture risk.
We simply should not treat T-scores, but must take a patient’s full clinical status
into account to make therapeutic decisions.
145. The term prevention and treatment in the context of osteoporosis has to be understood.
The term prevention is used to denote the prevention of bone loss in post-menopausal
women with osteopenia (T-score between 1 and 2.5) and increased fracture risk. Treatment
is defined as a reduction in fracture risk in post-menopausal women with osteoporosis.
Universal recommendations
146. Life-style management: Balanced diet, adequate physical activity, exposure to
sunlight, avoidance of bone depleting agents such as tobacco, alcohol, etc.
Nutrition
The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of calcium intake for Indian population [Table
6].[105]
Table 6
Recommended dietary allowance of calcium in women
Assess the total calcium intake from dietary sources and if needed, supplements are
used to correct the deficient balance. The intake should exceed > 800 mg/day (Grade
B). The risk of cardiovascular events, calculi are not observed with the recommended
doses of calcium.
The following tool depicted in Table 7 can be used for a quick calculation of daily
calcium intake.
Table 7
Quick dietary calcium assessment chart: A tool for a quick assessment of total dietary
calcium intake
Calcium content of Indian foods [Table 8].
Table 8
Calcium content of Indian foods
Low sodium intake: Daily salt intake should not exceed 5 g (1 tsp). Protein should
be 1 g/kg body weight.[105]
Decrease caffeine intake (<3 cups/day), limit alcohol and avoid use of tobacco (Grade
B). A cup (150 mL) of brewed coffee contains 80-120 mg of caffeine and instant coffee
50-65 mg while tea contains 30-65 mg of caffeine. Caffeine stimulates the central
nervous system and induces physiological dependency. In general, low doses (20-200
mg) of caffeine produce mild positive effects such as a feeling of wellbeing, alertness,
and energy. Higher doses (>200 mg) can produce negative effects such as nervousness
and anxiety, especially in people who do not usually consume caffeine-containing beverages.[105]
In the background of widespread vitamin D deficiency in all age groups, it is prudent
to adopt the US Endocrine Society 2011 [Table 9] RDA.[106] There is an urgent need
for an Indian update on RDA for different age groups.
Table 9
US endocrine society 2011 RDA
Vitamin D: Dietary sources are limited, adequate sunlight exposure has limitations
and presently, food fortified with adequate vitamin D is unavailable in India. Urgent
and cost-effective measures need to be implemented. Hence, it is recommended to use
vitamin D as supplements (Grade A).
Recommendations for management of vitamin D deficiency and maintenance are: (Grade
B).
Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) is available in the form of oral tablets and oral spray
of 1000 IU and 2,000 IU.
It is also available in the form of granules and tablet of 60,000 IU.
Intramuscular (IM) injections of vitamin D3 are available in doses of 300,000 IU and
60,000 IU per ampoule. Injections of cholecalciferol are cost-effective may be recommended
in cases of malabsorption and to increase compliance. The disadvantage is being an
oily injection, it is painful, and since it is administered intramuscularly and can
produce an erratic blood levels.
Cholecalciferol is the preferred therapy for correction of deficiency and maintenance.
Management of deficiency
Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) tablet or powder 60,000 IU/once a week for 8 weeks preferably
with milk or.
One IM injection of 600,000 IU is given to correct the deficiency.(not to be repeated
before 6 months and may be given after confirmation of persisting low levels of vitamin
D).
Maintenance therapy (from natural sources or supplements) is advised after correction
of the deficiency.
Maintenance therapy
Cholecalciferol tablet or powder 60,000 IU once a month in summer or twice a month
in winter.
Vitamin D supplements by oral spray or oral tablets of 2,000 IU/day, or.
Injection of Cholecalciferol 300,000 IU IM, twice a year or 600,000 IU IM once a year.
Cholecalciferol, 1,000 IU daily, will raise blood levels, on average, by approximately
10 ng/mL.
Upper acceptable limit
The dose for treatment should not exceed 4000 IU/day and hypocalcaemia has been reported
when the dose exceeds 10,000 IU/day.
x.
Vitamin D derivatives: Calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D is reserved only for
patients with chronic renal and hepatic disease Alfacalcidol is a synthetic analog
of the active vitamin D metabolite calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3), and it is
metabolized to calcitriol by its 25-hydroxylation in the liver. It is less potent
than calcitriol. The use of vitamin D derivatives necessitates monitoring of serum
and possibly urine calcium. There is the risk of hypercalcaemia and hypercalciuria.
Adverse effects of prolonged hypercalcemia include impairment of renal function and
nephrocalcinosis.
xi.
It is preferable to get vitamin D through sunlight by exposing 20% of body surface
area (face, neck, and both arms and forearms) without sunscreen for at least 30 min
between 10 am and 3 pm, depending on the season, latitude, altitude, pollution, and
skin pigmentation. The sunlight between 11 am to 2 pm is preferably the best.
xii.
In post-menopausal women, the intake of vitamin D should be in addition to sunlight
exposure. Vitamin D supplementation (≥500-2,000 IU/day) was favorable in the reduction
of hip fracture and any non-vertebral fracture in persons 65 years of age or older.
xiii.
Vitamin K: For women of post-menopausal age, 180-350 μg/day of vitamin K2-7 may need
to be supplemented along with the recommended intake of calcium, magnesium, vitamin
D, and a balanced diet. The current RDA of vitamin K2-7 WHO/of 65-80 μg/day is too
low and needs to be raised up to at least 100 μg/day throughout life, with larger
doses when needed.[107] Both bone and cardiovascular health of women with osteoporosis
would benefit from vitamin K2-7 intake (Grade C).
xiv.
Interestingly, exposure to complex nutrients and food constituents interact to affect
bone mass, it is, however, left to individual clinician to decide on supplementing
vitamin A, vitamin B12, and phytoestrogens (Grade B).
Prevention of falls
xv.
Patients should receive a multifactorial risk assessment and intervention because
it is the most consistently effective strategy to prevent falls (Grade A).
16. Home hazard assessment and modification, exercise, and physical therapy are recommended
to prevent falls and injuries from falls. Biomechanics of posture and safe movements
are a vital component of counseling (Grade A).
Flowcharts 3 and 4 show an approach to management of asymptomatic postmenopausal woman
and postmenopausal woman with fragility fracture, respectively.
Flowchart 3
Treatment algorithm for postmenopausal women asymptomatic woman
Flowchart 4
Treatment algorithm for postmenopausal women with fragility fracture
Frailty
147. Frailty: Fried et al. have standardized the definition as three or more of the
following five criteria; unintentional weight loss, self-reported exhaustion, weakness
(grip strength), slow motor performance (walking speed), and low physical activity.
Frailty-related falls and fractures have been reported with OR of 1.38-2.4 for falls
and recurrent falls, 1.40 and 1.7 for hip fracture in old women. Women’s health-care
programs targeting post-menopausal women’s comprehensive care can contribute a lot
by educating women as to take care of their musculoskeletal health through life-long
commitment to proper nutrition, exercise, and understanding about issues related to
prevention of falls.
Osteoarthritis
148. The prevalence of osteoarthritis in India as reported from a community dwellers
in a small study conducted in Delhi was 47.3% and in others it is reported to be between
22% and 39%.[108
109
110] Age, weight, female sex, quadriceps weakness, and overloading of the knee joint
(climbing stairs, squatting posture, etc.,) are the main contributors than menopause
per se in the incidence of osteoarthritis. Those contributing factors should be addressed
on a priority basis.
149. Epidemiological studies of a potential role for estrogens in osteoarthritis showed
two very different findings. First, estrogen deprivation at the menopause seems to
be associated with increases in the frequency of knee, hip, and finger osteoarthritis,
and in the severity of hip osteoarthritis. Second, HT for the menopause may decrease
the incidence and progression of hip and knee osteoarthritis.
150. The identification of the alfa and beta estrogen receptors in normal and osteoarthritic
cartilage and the effects of 17 beta estradiol on cartilage in vivo in animals and
In vitro confirm that the cartilage responds to estrogens. Finally, this response
is dose-dependent: Physiological doses (as with HT) are protective and higher dosages
are deleterious.
151. Perimenopausal women can be advised about HT and they should be aware of the
fact that only long-standing (>5 years) use of HT can be beneficial.
152. Once osteoarthritis sets in, there is no protection from HT and osteoarthritis
takes its own course. In such cases, osteoarthritis should be treated on its own merits.
153. Age, weight, female sex, quadriceps weakness, and overloading of knee joint (climbing
stairs, squatting posture, etc.,) are the main contributors than menopause per se
in the incidence of osteoarthritis. Those contributing factors should be addressed
on priority basis.
154. First two stages of osteoarthritis can be addressed by life-style modification,
pharmacotherapy, and physical therapy (Grade A).
155. Third and fourth stages need surgical intervention for which total knee replacement
is the gold standard (Grade B).
Eye
156. Blindness was more likely with increasing age and decreasing socio-economic status,
and in female subjects and in rural areas. The causes of blindness were easily treatable
in 60.3% (cataract, 44%; refractive error, 16.3%).[111] Preventable corneal disease,
glaucoma, complications of cataract surgery, and amblyopia caused another 19% of the
blindness [Table 10].
Table 10
The causes of blindness
Glaucoma
157. Glaucoma is the most common cause of irreversible, but preventable blindness
world-wide. There is level one evidence to show that prevalence and/or incidence of
glaucoma increases with age, women are more pre-disposed to angle closure glaucoma.
Established risk factors for glaucoma are age, family history, diabetes, shallow anterior
chamber, refractive status, and race (Grade A).
158. Blindness due to primary angle-closure glaucoma is potentially avoidable if this
condition is detected early and peripheral iridotomy or iridectomy is performed. This
requires detection of occludable angles, which lead to primary angle-closure glaucoma,
using slit-lamp examination and gonioscopy. Blindness due to primary open-angle glaucoma
is more difficult to prevent and medication in open angle glaucoma could prevent the
progression of the disease (Grade A).
Dry eye
159. There is increased risk of dry eye in both genders with age due to decreased
tear production. The incidence is more in women than men. Menopause also contributes
to the ocular surface impairment due to hormonal imbalance.
160. HRT after menopause, especially unopposed ET has been proven to cause the dry
eye (Grade B).
161. Prevention of blindness:
Improvement in the quality of cataract surgery, and increase in the number of surgeries
on persons blind in both eyes
Effective screening to detect refractive error blindness and provision of spectacles
Initiation of long-term strategies to prevent corneal and glaucoma blindness
Effective control of diabetes and yearly eye checkup to prevent diabetic retinopathy.
Cancers
162. A population-based study (Million Death Study cancer mortality in India: A nationally
representative survey 2012) revealed that 1 in 22 men or women aged 30 years alive
today in rural India is likely to die of cancer before 70 years of age based on the
rates of actual deaths and in the absence of other disorders. In urban areas, the
risks are 1 in 20 for men and 1 in 24 for women.[112]
Breast cancer
163. In India, breast cancer is the second most common cancer with an estimated 115,251
new diagnoses and the second most common cause of cancer-related deaths with 53,592
breast cancer deaths in 2008.[113
114] The age-standardized incidence rate for breast cancer in India is 22.9 per 100,000,
one-third that of Western countries, and the mortality rates are disproportionately
higher.[115
116]
164. The data from atlas project suggest that breast cancer in urban areas of India
is 3 times higher than in rural parts of the country.[117
118
119] Indian women are more likely to develop breast cancer at earlier ages than their
Western counterparts.[31]
165. Non-modifiable risk factors for breast cancer are age, family history, benign
breast disease, BRCA – Breast Cancer) 1 or 2 carriers, early menarche (<12 years),
late age at menopause (after age 55), increased breast density, and a chest irradiation
between ages 25 years and 55 years.
166. Modifiable risk factors are age at first child, breast-feeding, parity, obesity,
physical activity, and menopausal HT.
Screening in breast cancer
167. The debate about value of screening continues. There is no organized, systematic,
government funded screening program for breast cancer in India. The screening in developing
countries can be regarded as “opportunistic screening.” There are no evidence-based
guidelines for breast cancer screening in India at present.
Methods
Breast cancer screening includes 3 methods of early detection (Grade C).
Breast self-examination (BSE) monthly starting in the 20 s.
Clinical breast exams (CBE) every 3 years starting in the 20 s till 39, and annually
thereafter mammographic screening (annually) starting at the age of 40 years.
BSE
BSE is performed by the woman herself and involves examination of the breast, skin,
and axillae based on palpations by her hands.
The woman should examine the look and feel of her breasts as well as any signs, symptoms
or changes to the breasts.
BSE is recommended so that women understand their breasts for detecting any suspicious
changes over time.
Initially, BSE should be performed very frequently and regularly so that a woman understands
the physiological changes that occur during the different phases of menstrual cycle
and then continue monthly around 7th or 8th day of cycle. They are encouraged to report
any recent or persistent changes.
Nodular and lumpy feel of the breasts and increased pain and tenderness, which is
a physiological finding prior to menstruation, needs to be explained to the patient.
Women can be taught to examine the breasts in any of the following ways in both supine
as well as standing positions.
CBE
CBE and increasing awareness of breast cancer are viable alternative in view of limited
health-care resources and advanced stage of disease distribution for Indian women
in age group less than 50 years of age. Early results of trial by WHO in India (JNCI
2011) (Journal of the National Cancer Institute) and studies for cost effectiveness
of screening in Indian women support that CBE is an effective way and survival can
be improved by up to 16% at half the cost by use of CBE (JNCI 2008).
For women between 50 years and 70 years of age, annual CBE and selective use of mammography,
once in 3 years, in high-risk groups, determined by the above mentioned criteria has
been found to be equally effective (JNCI 2011).
CBE is performed by the clinician or other health professional and involves a systematic
examination of the breast skin and tissue.
The health professional is looking for signs and symptoms or if any changes occur,
including development of a lump or swelling, skin irritation or dimpling, nipple pain
or retraction (turning inward), redness or scaliness of the nipple or breast skin,
or a discharge other than breast milk.
CBE should include all the 4 quadrants of the breast and the central nipple areola
complex followed by examination of axilla and supraclavicular fossae.
Fibroadenoma, a benign condition feels as a firm and freely mobile swelling, characteristically
described as a “mouse in the breast” where as an irregular hard painless lump is characteristic
of malignancy. These findings are generalized and all lumps may not classically fit
into these descriptions.
Normal breasts may feel lumpy and tender prior to menstruation, especially if felt
with the tips of the fingers; hence, use of a flat hand is recommended.
Mammogram
In India, breast cancer incidence peaks before the age of 50 years, and a recent review
of the evidence in younger women (aged 39-49 years) based on 8 trials conducted between
2001 and 2008, suggests that mammographic screening is also beneficial in this younger
age group.
An approximate 12-15% reduction in breast cancer mortality is associated with mammography
screening for women aged 40-69 years.
Limitations of mammography in developing countries are economic constraints and quality
assurance. Cost affectivity and false positives are the other limitations in the use
of mammography in India.
The decision to perform mammography should be determined with shared decision making
about risks and benefits and by individual patient values.
168. MRI Currently MRI screening in combination with mammography is targeted to high-risk
patients, which includes:
BRCA 1 or 2 mutation carriers.
Untested women who have a first degree relative with a BRCA 1 or 2 mutation.
Lifetime risk of breast cancer of 20-25% or more.
Received radiation treatment to the chest between ages 10 and 30.
Genetic mutation in the TP53 Tumour Protein 53(Li-Fraumeni syndrome) or PTEN (Phosphatase
and Tensin homolog) genes (Cowden syndrome).
169. Role of (PET) Positron Emission Tomography imaging: PET has currently a limited
role in breast can cer, due to its low sensitivity and is not recommended in most
of the cases, especially in early disease. The most useful application of PET/CT is
monitoring the changes in 18F-FDG (Flu Deoxy Glucose) uptake during chemotherapy in
order to detect an early response to treatment.
Breast cancer prevention
170. The risk of breast cancer may be lowered to some extent by lifestyle changes,
working on modifiable risk factors, and diligent use of HRT.
171. The best way to protect one’s self is through early detection.
Prevention in high-risk population
172. Indications of risk reducing surgery, mastectomy, salpingo oophorectomy, and
chemoprevention can be discussed with experts. The decision is individualized.
Cancer cervix
173. Cervical cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in women in both rural and
urban areas. The cervical cancer death rate of 16/100,000 reported in the million
woman death study 2012 suggests that a 30-year-old Indian woman has about 0.7% risk
of dying from cervical cancer before 70 years of age in the absence of other diseases.
By contrast, the risk of dying during the pregnancy for Indian women aged 15-49 years
is about 0.6%.[112]
174. India contributes to over 25% of the disease burden and more than 26% of the
deaths due to cervical cancer world-wide. More than 75% of the cases presenting in
the late stage of the disease renders poor prospects for survival and cure. About
1, 34, 420 new case are being diagnosed every year.[120
121]
175. Risk factors: HPV-Human Papiloma Virus, sexual intercourse at an early age, multiple
sexual partners, sexual partners who have had multiple partners, HIV positive status,
and smoking.
176. In India, currently only 4.9% of urban women aged 18-69 years are screened every
3 years (WHS India -World Health Surveys. Geneva: WHO; 2003) and 2.3% of rural women
aged 18-69 years are screened every 3 years (WHS India).
177. Screening tests available
Visual inspection.
Visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA).
Visual inspection with Lugol’s iodine.
PAP Papinacolou smear both conventional and liquid base cytology.
HPV DNA testing.
Cervicography.
Papnet.
Polar probe.
The first three are useful at community and low resource setting whereas, the last
three are still in the experimental phase.
Primary care (Rural/Urban)
Cytology-based screening has made little impact in developing countries due to relatively
high false negative rate and lack of organized screening program and referral pattern.
Several studies have shown the benefit of a single visit approach in the form of “see
and treat,” which involves VIA followed by cryotherapy. This unique approach is based
on the principle that the screening test should provide rapid and accurate results
and the treatment modality should be appropriate, adequate, and effective. VIA and
cryotherapy satisfied these criteria and yielded satisfying results. A randomized
trial in South India done by Sankaranarayanan et al., in 2007 has shown 25% reduction
in cervical cancer incidence and 35% reduction in mortality compared to control with
VIA and cryotherapy.[122] This approach is useful in primary care level to make the
screening program more cost-effective. This can be carried out both by physicians
and trained nurses and mid wives.[120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129]
HPV testing also has been tried in a screen and treat approach. A few studies reported
screening with HPV DNA testing followed by cryotherapy. However, it has two limitations
- time and infrastructure required for current HPV testing and a lack of consensus
about appropriate follow-up for test positives and also treatment strategy. Hence,
in some other studies, HPV DNA positive women had VIA followed by cryotherapy if VIA
was positive.
Some studies suggest that cryotherapy is protective against the future development
of cervical disease among women with current HPV infection. Because of this, and due
to the low morbidity of cryotherapy, the occasional treatment of screen-positive women
without confirmed cervical disease is acceptable.
Secondary and tertiary Level
PAP smear,[130
131] and HPV DNA testing are being used commonly at secondary and tertiary care level.
Applicability of screening techniques at different settings both in rural and urban
[Table 11].
Table 11
Screening at different levels for cancer cervix
HPV co-testing is to be performed only if the woman crosses 30 years of age as most
of the HPV infection clears by then with natural immunity. If both PAP and HPV are
negative, the screening interval can be increased, which again becomes cost-effective.
Colposcopy: For screen-positive women, post any primary screening method adopted,
for diagnostic confirmation with guided biopsies. Because of hormonal changes, many
post-menopausal women will have an unsatisfactory colposcopy. Estrogen treatment (estrogen
cream application intra-vaginally each evening for 4 weeks and stopped 1 week before
repeat cytology) will cause enough ectropion of the endocervical cells to result in
a satisfactory examination.
Screening recommendations from different organizations [Table 12].
Table 12
Screening recommendations from different organisations
Women with negative PAP and positive HPV testing can be either rescreened with contesting
in 1 year or with a test specific for type of HPV (HPV 16 and 1).
All these screening methods may be sometimes inconclusive in menopausal women whose
transformation zone is inside the cervical canal or due to atrophic changes. Hence,
choosing the appropriate test is important.
High-risk (oncogenic) HPV DNA testing could be adopted for appropriate triage management
of post-menopausal women with unequivocal cytology results.
Post-colposcopy management of women of any age with initial cytologic result of atypical
glandular cells or ASC-H -′Atypical squamous cells- cannot exclude-High grade squamous
intraepithelial lesion" in initial work-up does not identify a high grade lesion).
In the event of availability of low-cost and rapid HPV testing as primary screening
test every 5 years up to the age of 65 is recommended. With HPV testing as the primary
screening method, PAP or VIA testing can be used to triage to evaluate those with
HPV-positive test results to plan for appropriate treatment options.
Above recommendation holds true for women seeking opportunistic services in apex and
secondary care levels in public and private sector health facilities where good quality
PAP cytology services and molecular testing for HPV DNA are available
178. In the absence of organized cervix cancer screening for the vast women population
in rural and urban areas, once in a life time screening by contesting by combined
use of cervical cytology and high-risk HPV DNA testing would be appropriate.
Primary prevention
179. Women should be educated early on to think of cervical cancer as an extension
of a sexually transmitted disease.
180. Behavioral changes to reduce the risk of cervical cancer include limiting the
number of sexual partners, delaying initial age of sexual intercourse, and avoiding
sexually transmitted disease. The association of cigarette smoking with cervical cancer
should also be emphasized.
181. An HPV vaccine needs to be promoted especially in the age group of 9 years to
the age of first sexual debut. Data from a large placebo-controlled trial showed that
the vaccine reduced the incidence of both HPV-16 infection and HPV-16 related (CIN)
Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia.
Cancer endometrium
182. Indian incidence of EC: 4.3/100,000 as per Delhi population based cancer registry.
EC is commonly occurs in post-menopausal women
Overall morbidity and mortality of EC is low because most patients present at an early
stage because of abnormal bleeding or PMB.
A strong influence of modifiable risk factors such as increasing obesity, life expectancy,
and adjuvant tamoxifen use for breast cancer has been attributed.
Adenomatous and atypical hyperplasia are the common precursors of endometrial carcinoma.
Factors that increase the risk of EC are those associated with increase in endogenous
estrogens or HT with estrogens.
Unopposed ET in women with an intact uterus increases the risk of EC 2- to 10-fold,
and risk increases with duration of use.
Cyclic or continuous progestin given along with estrogens reduces the risk of EC.
Relative risk of EC with obesity is 3.0 in women 21-50 lb overweight and 10 in women
more than 50 lb overweight.
Women taking tamoxifen for more than 2 years have a 2.3- fold to 7.5-fold relative
risk of EC.
The lifetime risk of EC for women with hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer
(HNPCC) and for women who are at high-risk for HNPCC is as high as 60%.
There is no evidence that screening by ultrasonography (e.g. endovaginal ultrasound
or transvaginal ultrasound) or endometrial biopsy reduces mortality from EC. Most
cases of EC (85%) are diagnosed at low stage because of symptoms, and survival rates
are high.
There is no indication that screening for EC is warranted for women who have no identified
risk factors.
It is recommended that, at the time of menopause, women at average risk should be
informed about risks and symptoms of EC, and strongly encouraged to report any unexpected
bleeding or spotting.
For those with increased risk and special situations such as on HT, genetic risk,
and on tamoxifen therapy should have a complete diagnostic evaluation for abnormal
bleeding.
Regular screening for high-risk group for endometrial carcinoma has not been fully
evaluated.
Women diagnosed with EC should have the benefit of multidisciplinary team approach.
Cancer ovary
183. The general or lifetime risk of ovarian cancer is 1.4%.
The most common sign of ovarian cancer is enlargement of the abdomen caused by accumulation
of fluid or a large ovarian mass. However, many women have bloating or weight gain
in the abdominal area, making this sign non-specific.
In women over 40, digestive disturbances that persist and cannot be explained by any
other cause indicate the need for a thorough evaluation for ovarian cancer, including
a carefully performed pelvic examination and ultrasound.
184. Risk factors
A first degree relative with ovarian cancer (mother, sister or daughter).
Personal H/o breast cancer < 40 years or age.
Personal H/o breast cancer < 50 and one or more close relative with breast or ovary
cancer at any age.
2 or more close relative with breast cancer < 50 years of age or ovarian cancer at
any age.
185. Screening: No screening guidelines are available for mass screening for ovarian
cancer. Recommendation for screening is dependent on the risk status of women.
186. A heightened awareness of the symptoms of early ovarian cancers on the parts
of the patients and practitioners may help to reduce the delay in diagnosis and hopefully
result in an improvement in outcome of some progress.
187. For general population - annual pelvic examination, PAP smear, and transvaginal
sonography are recom-mended as a part of post-menopausal surveillance.
188. Primary prevention: Limited data are available on the efficacy of prophylactic
oophorectomy in decreasing the risk of ovarian cancer in mutation carriers. Still,
it is recommended that prophylactic surgery be considered in BRCA mutation carriers
who have completed childbearing.
Vulvar cancer
189. Epidemiology: Cancer of the vulva is a rare disease that accounts for approximately
5% of gynecological cancers. The median age of onset is approximately 65-70 years
for invasive cancer and approximately 45-50 years for carcinoma in situ.
190. Risk factors for vulvar cancer include the following: HPV, previous genital warts,
greater number of sexual partners, current smoking, abnormal PAP smear, diabetes,
obesity, chronic vulvar pruritis, and poor personal hygiene have also been suggested
as contributing to risk.
191. Protected intercourse, monogamy, and adequate hygiene of the external genitalia
protect against vulvar cancer.
192. Prevention and detection: The prevention of vulvar cancer rests in the avoidance
of risk factors and application of protective factors as summarized above. Annual
examinations should be performed to check for vulvar cancer. High-risk patients should
be examined every 6 months. White lesions and chronic ulcerative lesions should be
biopsied for evaluation.
Stomach cancer
193. In women aged 30-69 years, the second most common fatal cancers were stomach
(14.1%). Stomach cancer rates were higher in rural than in urban areas of India due
to increased prevalence of chronic Helicobacter pylori infection.
Million death study cancer mortality in India: A nationally representative survey
2012. This may include stomach and primary liver cancer. Prevalence of hepatitis B
virus (HBV) in India was less than 1.9% in 72,000 pregnant women aged 15-49 years
who were tested in 2002.
194. Nearly, 37% of all female cancer deaths were from infection-related cervical,
stomach, and liver cancers and 18.3% were from tobacco-related cancers. This underscores
the importance of vaccination, control of infection.[112] Vaccination against HBV
would reduce future liver cancer deaths and cirrhosis. Use of tobacco in pan and beedi
should be strongly discouraged.
SECTION III
ABNORMAL MENOPAUSE
Premature menopause
195. The National Family Health Survey of 1998-99, collected information from a sample
of more than 90,000 married women aged between 15 and 49 and covering 99% of India’s
population living in 26 states. 3.1% of the women are already in menopause by the
age of 30-34, and the incidence rises to 8% for the age bracket of 35-39. At age of
48-49 years 66% of the women are amenorrheic. This is probably an overestimate for
the study did not differentiate between natural, surgical or secondary causes.[67]
196. Menopause occurring at an age less than 2 SD below the mean estimated age for
the reference population is called as premature menopause.
197. Diagnosis is established by hormone analysis repeated 1 month apart. Serum FSH
levels > 40 U/mL are diagnostic of POF.
198. Appropriate counseling, life-style modification and HRT form the mainstay of
treatment. HRT should be started as early as possible in women with POF and continued
till age of natural menopause. Androgen replacement should be considered for women
with persistent fatigue, loss of libido in spite of estrogen replacement.
199. No evidence that HT increases risk of breast cancer, CVD or dementia, over and
above that found in menstruating women with a normally timed menopause.
200. Women with untreated premature menopause are at increased risk of developing
osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease dementia, cognitive decline, and Parkinson’s
and all-cause mortality.
201. Women receiving chemotherapy/radiotherapy (pelvis) should be cautioned about
iatrogenic premature menopause.
202. Hysterectomy alone can sometimes cause early menopause.
Induced menopause
203. The exact prevalence of surgical menopause is not known, but varies in the rural
to urban areas and across states.
204. A significant number of hysterectomies along with bilateral oophorectomies are
performed at a young age. This trend of unwarranted hysterectomies and surgical castration
for fear of cancer by the professional and the women should be discouraged.
205. There is wide diversity in awareness, about public health problems and QOL among
both physicians and population. There is a great need of awareness program about consequence
of surgical menopause risk/benefit and in prevention of problems due to surgical menopause.
206. The exact prevalence of surgical menopause is not known, but varies in the rural
to urban areas and across states.
206. The physicians should have appropriate knowledge to recognize menopausal symptoms
and whenever in doubt should get the test (FSH > 40 IU/mL, E2 < 40 pg/mL.
207. Women who need oophorectomy before menopause should be counseled about the risk
of surgical menopause.
208. Routine HT is not recommended for surgical menopause in post-menopausal women
as primary prevention for chronic conditions.
209. HT should be considered in women less than 50 who have undergone surgical menopause.
SECTION IV
CLINICAL EVALUATION
General considerations
210. Clinical examination includes a holistic approach to health, rather than simply
looking for features of menopause in isolation and this leads to diagnose the latent
and overt NICD. Non communicable disease.[68
39
70
71
132] A thorough assessment of the health-related problems helps in formulating treatment
plan. Examination can be broadly divided into three main categories:
General physical examination: Examination of respiratory, cardiovascular system, and
bones may detect common age related problems
Breast examination: This should be carried out regularly due to an increased risk
of breast cancer as women get older
Pelvic examination: This is performed to assess for complications of menopause, such
as urogenital atrophy and must include PAP smear.
Assessment
Detailed history.
Evaluate women’s need.
Evaluation of women’s individual risk factor.
Assess general condition of patient.
Physical examination:
Pulse
BP
Optimal BP (<130/85) to be rechecked every 2 years.
Normal level (<140/90 mmHg) to be checked yearly.
Greater than 140/90 mmHg need second measurement to confirm diagnosis of hypertension.
Auscultation of the heart and lungs
Height.
Weight.
Waist circumferences.
Calculate BMI.
Breast examination.
Pelvic examination.
211. Risk Factors for Osteoporosis: Major risk factors as defined by WHO are advancing
age, prior fragility fracture, low BMI, family history of fracture, smoking and more
than three drinks of alcohol per day (R: Grade A).
Environmental factors include nutrition (calcium intake using the quick dietary calculator,
protein) physical activity and sunlight exposure, which are important modifiable risk
factors in India. Relevance of risk of falling increases with ageing. R (Grade A).
212. Risk factors for coronary heart disease: Pre- maturemenopause, hypertension,
dyslipidemia, homocystenemia, lipoprotein(a), high-risk CRP, DM, obesity, sedentary
life-style, smoking, and metabolic syndrome.
213. Risk factors for DM: Advancing age, obesity, family history, hypertension, dyslipidemia,
personal history of gestational DM or impaired glucose tolerance, PCOS, and physical
inactivity.
214. Risk factor for deep vein thrombosis: Personal or family history of clot, if
so, when and why? Prolonged immobilization-surgery or while pregnant or on the contraceptive
pills. Any tests to confirm the clot history of the treatment with anticoagulants.
215. Risk factors for stroke: Hypertension, diabetes, smoking, obesity, atrial fibrillation,
asymptomatic carotid stenosis, and hyperlipidemia.
216. Risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease: Age, family history, genetic factor APOE,
MCI, CVD risk factors, physical inactivity, diabetes, hyper-tension, dyslipidemia,
smoking, obesity, auto-immune diseases, depression and stress, social engagement and
diet, and head trauma and traumatic brain injury.
Polypharmacy and thyroid disease are two examples of reversible causes of memory loss
in older adults.
Investigations
217. These are necessary to establish the diagnosis, determine etiology, and screen
for complication. Some investigations may be necessary to perform for diagnosis or
to help in formulating a treatment plan.
218. Recommended laboratory tests:
Complete blood picture.
Urine test routine.
Fasting glucose level.
Lipid profile.
Serum TSH.
Stool for occult blood.
PAP smear.
Transvaginal ultrasound.
Mammogram/ultrasound.
Eye checkup – intraocular pressures, refractive index, and retina.
219. The following investigations are not mandatory and should be chosen judiciously
depending on the women’s history and examination [Table 13].
Table 13
Test performed solely on indication
SECTION V
MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
A. Counseling
220. Today, the art of medical counseling and translating the statistics in simple
language is an important part of the consultation.
221. The objectives of counseling include addressing women’s questions and concerns,
providing patient education, and enhancing the patient’s confidence in the decision
making. If a therapy is chosen, the patient and clinician should agree on the goals,
risks, and benefits, whether they are short-term (menopause symptom relief), long-term
(primary or secondary prevention of diseases associated with aging), or both.[133
134
135
136]
222. The clinician should review the decisions about menopause management with the
patient at subsequent visits.
Dietary prescription
223. The National Institute of Nutrition plan for an adult sedentary woman is a good
strategy for healthy living [Table 14].
Table 14
Nutrition plan for an adult sedentary woman
Exercise prescription
224. Physical exercise helps to maintain a healthy weight, improves bone density,
coordination and balance, muscle strength and joint mobility, lipid profiles, genitourinary
problems, relieves depression, and induces sleep.
225. Combination of exercises, diet, and yoga helps the post-menopausal women to increase
her metabolic rate and maintain a healthy weight.
226. Social interactions either in an exercise program or otherwise, help the post-menopausal
women to improve mood, relieve depression, and anxieties.
227. Euphoria created with activity promotes her QOL.
Immunization prescription
228. Hepatitis B vaccination is indicated for all unvaccinated adults at risk for
HBV infection and all adults seeking protection from HBV infection including post-exposure
prophylaxis. Pre-vaccination screening in general population has not been found to
be cost-effective in India (Level B).
229. The expert group of Association of Physicians of India recommends vaccination
of the entire community at risk during an outbreak situation (Grade B).
230. Two doses of varicella vaccine are strongly recommended in adults at increased
risk for exposure of varicella (Grade B).
Pharmacotherapy
Complementary and alternative therapies
231. Non-hormonal prescription agents may relieve VMS, but have their own side effects.
These can be considered when HRT is contraindicated or not desired.[137] (Grade A).
232. Complementary and alternative treatments should be advised with caution as the
data is still insufficient, especially in moderate to severe VMS (Grade A).
233. Awareness should be created regarding the phytoestrogens and lycopene rich foods
in the Indian diet.[138] (Grade C).
234. It is recommended to validate the effects of locally used herbs in the Indian
context, according to modern medicine and prescribe them rationally using clinical
research tools and well-designed and documented RCTs. Whilst prescribing or recommending
herbs, it would be essential to fully inform the women that very little human data
is available on the usefulness of these formulations and side-effects of the herbs
have not been studied. It is important to read labels to determine isoflavone content
and to warn them that in India, there are no regulations to ensure the content or
quality of such products (Grade C).
HT
Terminology
235. HT covers therapies including estrogens, progestogens, combined therapies, androgens,
and tibolone.
236. Terminology used in HT: HT, HT; ET; Estrogen progesterone therapy (EPT), EPT;
and androgen therapy (AT).
237. Three indications for post-menopausal HT, which have constantly withstood the
test of time, derived from the results of various clinical trials are the beneficial
effect of estrogens on symptom relief, urogenital atrophy, and bone.
Patient characteristics that may be favorable for estrogen/androgen combination
238. Surgical menopause continued VMS despite estrogen replacement, decreased wellbeing
despite estrogen replacement, and acquired sexual desire dysfunction.
Indications for HT
239. The most effective treatment for VMS is HT (Grade A).
240. Progesterones or Low dose oral contraceptive pills can be used in the menopause
transition phase for relief of symptoms (Grade A).
241. Vaginal ET is most effective in the treatment of urogenital atrophy. Low dose
vaginal preparations are as effective as systemic therapy. Some women on oral ET may
require additional local therapy (Grade A).
242. Recurrent attacks of atrophic vaginitis require the use of the smallest effective
dose over a period of time. After control of acute symptoms, the dose of local estrogen
can be tapered for long-term maintenance therapy. Treatment may be continued indefinitely,
although safety data from studies do not go beyond 1 year (Grade C).
243. Recurrent urinary tract in this age after ruling out other causes may benefit
from the local application of ET (Grade A).
244. Progesterone supplement for endometrial protection is not needed along with the
use of vaginal estrogen (Grade C).
245. Endometrial surveillance is not necessary in low risk asymptomatic woman. Unscheduled
bleeding should be investigated by an ultrasound and endometrial biopsy (Grade A).
246. EPT/ET may be used for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in the early
post-menopause in symptomatic women unless there is a contra-indication. ET/EPT prevents
all osteoporotic fractures even in low risk population, it increases lumbar spine
BMD up to 7.6% and femoral neck BMD up to 4.5% over 3 years. It reduces the risk of
spine, hip, and other osteoporotic fractures by 33-40% (Grade A).
247. HT should not be started solely for bone protection after 10 years of menopause.
Extended use of HT in women with reduced bone mass is an option after considering
the risk benefit analysis compared to the other available therapies for osteoporosis.
The bone protective effect is lost after stopping HT (Grade B).
248. HT should be offered to women with POF or early menopause (and it can be recommended
until the age of natural menopause (Grade C).
249. Estrogen can be prescribed to enhance mood in women with depressive symptoms.
The effect appears to be greater for perimenopausal symptomatic women than for post-menopausal
women (Grade A).
Possible benefits
250. HT (conjugated equine estrogens±medroxy- progesterone) was associated with a
decrease in the risk for type 2 diabetes (Grade B).
251. HT decreases the abdominal obesity (Grade B).
252. Estrogens may have a protective effect on osteoarthritis (Grade B).
253. Estrogen benefits verbal memory over the short period when initiated soon after
surgical menopause (Grade B).
254. HT reduces the neovascular macular lesions (Grade C).
255. HT in the early menopausal period improves QOL by its effects on vasomotor and
urogenital symptoms, improvement on sleep, and mood (Grade B).
HT use in disease
256. All preparations including low dose, non-oral routes of estrogen are effective
in symptom control and in preserving bone mass. In women with hypertriglyceridemia,
obesity, glucose intolerance, history of deep vein thrombosis, and tobacco users,
non-oral route should be the preferred (Grade B).
257. Women who have general risk of breast cancer can be prescribed HT according to
their need after a detailed history, examination, and counseling. They should be provided
information about breast cancer risk with HT as per evidence.
258. Women who are at high-risk of breast cancer also can be prescribed HT after risk
benefit analysis.
259. HT does not appear to influence the clinical pattern of benign breast disease
in a post-menopausal woman (Grade C).
260. Use of HT in breast cancer survivors is debatable. It is recommended to use non-hormonal
therapies.
261. Women with cervix, ovary, and EC endometrial cancer can be given HT if needed.
262. (HT) Hormone Therapy given to women below the age of 60 or within 10 years of
menopause, the risks are rare. The tables below two elaborate the benefits and risks
in terms that can be easily communicated during counseling.
263. Classification of frequency of drug reactions according to WHO and CIOMS – The
Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences
Very common > 1/10; common (frequent) >1/100 and < 1/10; uncommon (infrequent) >1/1,000
and < 1/100; rare > 1/10,000 and < 1/1,000; and very rare < 1/10,000.
264. Harms
265. Based on WHI: Number of excess events on HT versus placebo per 10,000 women per
year of HT Use between the age group of 50 years and 59 years (R: Grade A) [Table
15].
Table 15
Based on WHI: number of excess events on HT vs. placebo per 10,000 women per year
of HT use between the age group of 50–59 years (R: Grade A)
266. Benefits
Based on WHI: Number of less events on estrogen versus placebo per 10,000 women per
year of HT use between the age group of 50 years and 59 years (R: Grade A) [Table
16].
Table 16
Based on WHI: number of less events on estrogen vs. placebo per 10,000 women per year
of HT use between the age group of 50-59 years (R: Grade A)
Absolute contraindications of HT
267. Active endometrial and gynecological hormone dependent cancers, active breast
cancer, estrogen progestogen receptor positive cancers, known or suspected pregnancy,
undiagnosed, abnormal vaginal bleeding, severe active liver disease with impaired/abnormal
liver function, estrogen dependent venous thmbosis, and inherent increased risk of
thromboembolism.
Precautions
268. Progesterone in adequate dose should be supplemented along with oral estrogens
in women with uterus (Grade A).
269. Estrogen alone is given in hysterectomized women (Grade A).
270. Progesterone supplement for endometrial protection is not needed along with the
use of vaginal estrogen (Grade C).
271. Endometrial surveillance is not necessary in low risk asymptomatic woman. Unscheduled
bleeding should be investigated by an ultrasound and endometrial biopsy (Grade A).
272. Pre-HT work-up and an annual follow-up are essential when prescribing HT. The
dose and duration of use of HT should be individualized and a risk-benefit assessment
carried out annually. A full gynecological assessment is mandatory prior to starting
HT and at regular intervals thereafter. Self-breast examination is advised monthly
and CBE at least annually. Mammogram/US, where available should be carried out 1-3
yearly if the initial mammogram is normal (Grade C).
Duration of use
273. Premature menopause-HT can be prescribed up to the natural age of menopause;
further continuation of therapy is a shared decision between the woman and the physician
according to the indication and the need (Grade C).
274. Natural menopause: Safety data of EPT therapy with CEE+MPA is 3-5 years with
ET safety data for use is 7 years of treatment with 4 years follow-up. Role of extended
use of HT is a shared decision between the woman and the physician and may be considered
in cases of recurrence of symptoms after stopping therapy, in cases of management
of osteoporosis when other therapies are contraindicated (Grade A).
275. Stopping HT: May be abrupt or the dose and duration may be tapered off gradually
(Grade C).
Potency and non-oral routes
276. Minimum effective dose is the principle to be followed while prescribing HT.
The potency needed by the woman may change over time. After starting standard dose
therapy, dose can be lowered and maintained accordingly. Low dose and ultralow dose
therapy are effective in relieving symptoms and increasing bone mass.
277. Transdermal estrogen has a neutral effect on triglycerides, CRP, and sex hormone
binding globulin and is preferable for use in women with hypertriglyceridemia, obesity,
glucose intolerance, high-risk of deep vein thrombosis, and tobacco users.
HT and CVD
278. HT should not be prescribed for primary or secondary prevention of CVD. However,
healthy women within 10 years of menopause tend to have a lower risk.
279. HT increases VTE risk by 2-fold (Grade A).
280. Standard dose oral HT increased stroke risk by about one third in generally healthy
post-menopausal women (Grade B). Low dose ET may not increase the risk of stroke (Grade
C).
HT and breast cancer
Estrogen alone
281. Estrogen alone increases percentage mammographic density, not as much as estrogen
and progesterone together (Level A).
282. Estrogen increases the risk of breast cancer after more than 5 years of use,
particularly in recently post-menopausal women (Level B).
283. The precise duration of exposure needed to exert this effect is not clear, but
a linear model suggests a 3% relative increase per year of exposure in thin women
and a lesser risk in obese women (Level C).
284. The attributable or excess risk for 5 years usage is 0/1000 to 2.59/1000 (Level
C). It falls under the rare category.
285. Increased risk dissipates within 5 years of discontinuing the HT (Level B).
286. Use of estrogen for less than 5 years may reduce the risk especially in women
who start HT many years after menopause (Level B).
287. Tumors in HT used women are usually ER positive and lobular type (Level C).
Estrogen+progesterone (E+P)
288. E+P increase percentage mammographic density significantly (Level A).
289. E+P particularly with synthetic progesterones increase the risk of invasive breast
cancer within 3-5 years of initiation and increases progressively beyond that time
(Level B).
290. Emerging data from 2 independent studies report that progesterone (micronized
progesterone/dydrogesterone) with estrogen does not increase the risk if given for
less than 5 years (Level C).
291. The risk returns to approximately that of non-users within 3 years of cessation
(Level B).
Androgens
292. Available data is of low quality and conflicting regarding the risk of breast
cancer relating to use of androgens (Level D).
293. Prospective randomized double-blind trials are needed (Level D).
Tibolone
294. It reduces the risk of breast cancer in post-menopausal women (Grade B).
295. It increases the risk of breast cancer recurrences.
Raloxefene
296. It decreases the risk of development of breast cancer.
Maximum benefits, minimum side-effects of HT can be achieved by judicious use
297. Age of initiation: Ideally therapy begins within 10 years of menopause or below
60 years of age – “window of opportunity.”
298. Low dose: Use of low-dose estrogen with low-dose progestin when appropriate.
299. Route of administration: Transdermal administration has reduced risk of blood
clotting (VTE risk) compared to oral administration.
300. Progestin: Side-effect profile of various progestins may play a clinical role
in selecting the optimum treatment regimen. Natural progesterone is a choice.
301. Tissue selective estrogen complex (TSEC): Newer formulations of combination therapy
of estrogen and selective estrogen receptor modulators are soon to be available.
Tibolone
302. Tibolone is a selective tissue estrogenic activity regulator. It is a synthetic
steroid compound, which has estrogenic, progestogenic, and androgenic properties.
It has an estrogenic effect on bone, inhibiting bone resorption by reducing osteoclastic
activity.
303. Tibolone is approved in 90 countries to treat menopausal symptoms and in 45 countries
to prevent osteoporosis.
Tibolone is effective in treating VMS and improves urogenital atrophy (Grade A).
304. It improves mood and libido (Grade B).
305. Tibolone is prescribed in a single daily dose of 2.5 mg orally. A lower dose
of 1.25 mg has been found to be equally effective for most indications, including
osteoporosis. It should be prescribed 1 year after amenorrhea (Grade A).
306. Tibolone reduces the risk of vertebral and non-vertebral fracture in older osteoporotic
women. Tibolone prevents bone loss and is as effective as standard doses of conventional
post-menopausal HT. Tibolone increases lumbar spine and total hip BMD to a statistically
significantly greater extent than raloxifene (Grade A).
307. It does not increase the risk of VTE and CVD events (Grade B).
308. It does not induce endometrial hyperplasia or carcinoma in post-menopausal women
(Grade A).
309. Tibolone may be preferable to HRT in symptomatic menopausal women with mammographically
dense breast tissue (Grade A).
310. Tibolone may be used as add back therapy with GnRH analogs for VMS and to maintain
BMD (Grade B).
311. Tibolone may be used in women with myomas and endometriosis.
312. Tibolone should not be used in breast cancer survivors as it increases the recurrence
risk (Grade A).
313. It reduces the risk of breast cancer in post-menopausal women (Level B).
314. Tibolone should be used with caution in women over 60 years and should not be
used in those who have strong risk factors for stroke (Grade A).
Selective estrogen receptor modulators
315. Selective estrogen receptor modulators, e.g. raloxifene at 60 mg daily improve
and preserve bone density at the spine (2.6%) and hip (2.1%) after 4 years with a
simultaneous reduction by 76% in the risk of invasive breast cancer.
Antifracture efficacy on the hip is lacking (Grade A).
316. Raloxifene has been shown to be beneficial in reducing new vertebral fracture
risk by 69% in post-menopausal women with osteoporosis and 47% in postmenopausal women
with osteopenia over 3 years (Grade A).
317. Raloxifene can be used as therapy for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis
especially for women with an increased risk of breast cancer (Grade A).
318. Raloxifene and estrogen are associated with a similar increased risk of VTE (Grade
A). Other side-effects include hot flushes, which are more likely in the perimenopausal
period, and leg cramps.
SECTION VI
Economics of menopause management
319. Indian health-care system is one of the most privatized systems where government
spends much less and individual has to pay for health insurance.
320. Insurance may be described as a social device to reduce or eliminate the risk
of life and property. Under the plan of insurance, many people associate themselves
by sharing risk, attached to individual insurance plan that covers only health-care
costs and is called health insurance.
321. It is indeed very important to enroll in any of the good health insurance schemes
for a secure future. Health-care insurance provides a cushion against medical emergencies.
Most companies stop enrolment after 65-70 years of age.[139]
322. Menopause management is associated with significant direct and indirect costs.
323. Direct costs include physician’s visits, specialist’s visit and traditional pharmacotherapy
or alternative and complimentary medicines modality.
324. Indirect costs include laboratory testing, management of adverse events, loss
of productivity at home and at work, and treatment of associated medical disorders.
325. Rates prevailing in different regions of India are compared and the preliminary
cost (without medication) is found to a range between Rs. 5,800 and Rs. 8,400.
326. Various oral estrogen and tibolone preparations are available in Indian market,
cost of which ranges from Rs. 40 to Rs. 990.
327. Local and transdermal estrogen preparations are scarce in Indian market, cost
of which ranges from Rs. 134 to Rs. 658.
328. Various oral and non-oral progesterone preparations are available in Indian market,
cost of which ranges from Rs. 10 to Rs. 820.
329. Various groups of molecules are available for prevention and treatment of osteopenia
and osteoporosis. Cost of therapy varies according to the indication whether they
are prescribed for prevention or treatment of osteopenia or osteoporosis.
330. Alternative and complimentary medications are usually not considered to be part
of mainstream medicine, but are popularly available in Indian market, cost of which
ranges from Rs. 42 to Rs. 473.
331. Menopause is a time of significant changes, which often have a negative impact
on QOL. However, it is possible to live well with menopause. Adopting a healthy life-style
is cost-effective. 140