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      Distribution, epidemiological characteristics and control methods of the pathogen Nosema ceranae Fries in honey bees Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera, Apidae) Translated title: Distribución, características epidemiológicas y métodos de control del patógeno Nosema ceranae Fries en abejas Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera, Apidae)

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          Abstract

          Up until a few years ago, the microsporidian parasite Nosema ceranae was considered to be a pathogen of Apis cerana exclusively; however, only recently it has shown to be very virulent to Apis mellifera. Therefore, it has been named as apathogenic agent active in the disappearance of honey bee colonies globally, infecting all members of the colony. Honey bees are widely used for pollination and honey production, hence their importance in agriculture. They also play an important ecological role in plant pollination: a third of human food crops are pollinated by bees as well as many plants consumed by other animals. In this context, the object of this review is to summarise the information published by different authors on the geographical distribution and the morphological and genetic characteristics of this parasite, the symptomatology of the disease and the control methods used in those countries where N. ceranae is present, in order to identify better tools to confront this new bee disease.

          Translated abstract

          El parásito microsporidio Nosema ceranae, hasta hace algunos años fue considerado como patógeno de Apis cerana solamente, sin embargo en el último tiempo se ha demostrado que puede afectar con gran virulencia a Apis mellifera. Por esta razón, ha sido denunciado como un agente patógeno activo en la desaparición de las colonias de abejas en el mundo, infectando a todos los miembros de la colonia. Es importante mencionar que las abejas son ampliamente utilizadas para la polinización y la producción de miel, de ahí su importancia en la agricultura, además de desempeñar un papel ecológico importante en la polinización de las plantas donde un tercio de los cultivos de alimentos son polinizados por abejas, al igual que muchas plantas consumidas por animales. En este contexto, esta revisión pretende resumir la información generada por diferentes autores con relación a distribución geográfica, características morfológicas y genéticas, sintomatología y métodos de control que se realizan en aquellos países donde está presente N. ceranae, de manera de tener mayores herramientas para enfrentar la lucha contra esta nueva enfermedad apícola.

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          The sublethal effects of pesticides on beneficial arthropods.

          Traditionally, measurement of the acute toxicity of pesticides to beneficial arthropods has relied largely on the determination of an acute median lethal dose or concentration. However, the estimated lethal dose during acute toxicity tests may only be a partial measure of the deleterious effects. In addition to direct mortality induced by pesticides, their sublethal effects on arthropod physiology and behavior must be considered for a complete analysis of their impact. An increasing number of studies and methods related to the identification and characterization of these effects have been published in the past 15 years. Review of sublethal effects reported in published literature, taking into account recent data, has revealed new insights into the sublethal effects of pesticides including effects on learning performance, behavior, and neurophysiology. We characterize the different types of sublethal effects on beneficial arthropods, focusing mainly on honey bees and natural enemies, and we describe the methods used in these studies. Finally, we discuss the potential for developing experimental approaches that take into account these sublethal effects in integrated pest management and the possibility of integrating their evaluation in pesticide registration procedures.
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            Colony Collapse Disorder: A Descriptive Study

            Background Over the last two winters, there have been large-scale, unexplained losses of managed honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies in the United States. In the absence of a known cause, this syndrome was named Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) because the main trait was a rapid loss of adult worker bees. We initiated a descriptive epizootiological study in order to better characterize CCD and compare risk factor exposure between populations afflicted by and not afflicted by CCD. Methods and Principal Findings Of 61 quantified variables (including adult bee physiology, pathogen loads, and pesticide levels), no single measure emerged as a most-likely cause of CCD. Bees in CCD colonies had higher pathogen loads and were co-infected with a greater number of pathogens than control populations, suggesting either an increased exposure to pathogens or a reduced resistance of bees toward pathogens. Levels of the synthetic acaricide coumaphos (used by beekeepers to control the parasitic mite Varroa destructor) were higher in control colonies than CCD-affected colonies. Conclusions/Significance This is the first comprehensive survey of CCD-affected bee populations that suggests CCD involves an interaction between pathogens and other stress factors. We present evidence that this condition is contagious or the result of exposure to a common risk factor. Potentially important areas for future hypothesis-driven research, including the possible legacy effect of mite parasitism and the role of honey bee resistance to pesticides, are highlighted.
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              How natural infection by Nosema ceranae causes honeybee colony collapse.

              In recent years, honeybees (Apis mellifera) have been strangely disappearing from their hives, and strong colonies have suddenly become weak and died. The precise aetiology underlying the disappearance of the bees remains a mystery. However, during the same period, Nosema ceranae, a microsporidium of the Asian bee Apis cerana, seems to have colonized A. mellifera, and it's now frequently detected all over the world in both healthy and weak honeybee colonies. For first time, we show that natural N. ceranae infection can cause the sudden collapse of bee colonies, establishing a direct correlation between N. ceranae infection and the death of honeybee colonies under field conditions. Signs of colony weakness were not evident until the queen could no longer replace the loss of the infected bees. The long asymptomatic incubation period can explain the absence of evident symptoms prior to colony collapse. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that healthy colonies near to an infected one can also become infected, and that N. ceranae infection can be controlled with a specific antibiotic, fumagillin. Moreover, the administration of 120 mg of fumagillin has proven to eliminate the infection, but it cannot avoid reinfection after 6 months. We provide Koch's postulates between N. ceranae infection and a syndrome with a long incubation period involving continuous death of adult bees, non-stop brood rearing by the bees and colony loss in winter or early spring despite the presence of sufficient remaining pollen and honey.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                amv
                Archivos de medicina veterinaria
                Arch. med. vet.
                Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile (Valdivia, , Chile )
                0301-732X
                2015
                : 47
                : 2
                : 129-138
                Affiliations
                [02] Coyhaique orgnameAgriculture and Livestock Service Chile
                [01] Temuco orgnameUniversidad Católica de Temuco orgdiv1Natural Resources Faculty orgdiv2Agronomy School Chile xaraneda@ 123456uct.cl
                Article
                S0301-732X2015000200002 S0301-732X(15)04700200002
                870dda61-2ab8-4f0d-921e-bbddafbcffa3

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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                Figures: 0, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 101, Pages: 10
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                SciELO Chile

                Categories
                REVIEW ARTICLES

                Apis mellifera,Nosema ceranae,microsporidio,parásito,microsporidian,parasite

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