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      Predation risk can modify the foraging behaviour of frugivorous carnivores: Implications of rewilding apex predators for plant–animal mutualisms

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          Abstract

          1. Apex predators play key roles in food webs and their recovery can trigger trophic cascades in some ecosystems. Intra‐guild competition can reduce the abundances of smaller predators and perceived predation risk can alter their foraging behaviour thereby limiting seed dispersal by frugivorous carnivores. However, little is known about how plant–frugivore mutualisms could be disturbed in the presence of larger predators.

          2. We evaluated the top‐down effect of the regional superpredator, the Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus, on the number of visits and fruits consumed by medium‐sized frugivorous carnivores, as well as the foraging behaviour of identified individuals, by examining the consumption likelihood and the foraging time.

          3. We carried out a field experiment in which we placed Iberian pear Pyrus bourgaeana fruits beneath fruiting trees and monitored pear removal by frugivorous carnivores, both inside and outside lynx ranges. Using camera traps, we recorded the presence of the red fox Vulpes vulpes, the Eurasian badger Meles meles and the stone marten Martes foina, as well as the number of fruits they consumed and their time spent foraging.

          4. Red fox was the most frequent fruit consumer carnivore. We found there were fewer visits and less fruit consumed by foxes inside lynx ranges, but lynx presence did not seem to affect badgers. We did not observe any stone marten visits inside lynx territories. The foraging behaviour of red foxes was also altered inside lynx ranges whereby foxes were less efficient, consuming less fruit per unit of time and having shorter visits. Local availability of fruit resources, forest coverage and individual personality also were important variables to understand visitation and foraging in a landscape of fear.

          5. Our results show a potential trophic cascade from apex predators to primary producers. The presence of lynx can reduce frugivorous carnivore numbers and induce shifts in their feeding behaviour that may modify the seed dispersal patterns with likely consequences for the demography of many fleshy‐fruited plant species. We conclude that knowledge of the ecological interactions making up trophic webs is an asset to design effective conservation strategies, particularly in rewilding programs.

          Abstract

          Red fox ( Vulpes vulpes) foraging placidly on Iberian pear fruits ( Pyrus bourgaeana) in one fruit depot created for the field experiment of this study outside Iberian lynx ( Lynx pardinus) ranges.

          Resumen

          1. Los depredadores ápice juegan papeles clave en las cadenas tróficas y su recuperación puede dar lugar a cascadas tróficas en algunos ecosistemas. La competición intra‐gremial puede reducir las abundancias de los depredadores más pequeños y el riesgo de depredación percibido puede alterar su comportamiento de forrajeo, llegando a limitar la dispersión de semillas de los carnívoros frugívoros. Sin embargo, se sabe poco sobre cómo un mutualismo planta‐animal podría ser alterado en presencia de grandes depredadores.

          2. Aquí evaluamos los efectos en cascada del superdepredador regional, el lince ibérico Lynx pardinus, sobre el número de visitas y frutos consumidos por los carnívoros frugívoros de mediano tamaño, a la vez que el comportamiento de alimentación de individuos identificados, examinando la probabilidad de consumo y el tiempo de forrajeo.

          3. Llevamos a cabo un experimento en el que colocamos frutos de piruétano Iberian pear bajo árboles productores y monitoreamos la remoción de peras por los carnívoros frugívoros, tanto dentro como fuera de territorios de lince. Mediante el uso de cámaras trampa, registramos la presencia de zorro rojo Vulpes vulpes, tejón europeo Meles meles y garduña Martes foina, además del número de frutos que consumieron y el tiempo que emplearon forrajeando.

          4. El zorro rojo fue el carnívoro consumidor de frutos más frecuente. Encontramos que había menos visitas y un menor consumo de frutos por zorros dentro de los territorios del lince, pero la presencia de lince no pareció afectar a los tejones. No registramos ninguna visita de garduña dentro de los territorios de los linces. El comportamiento de forrajeo de los zorros rojos fue también alterado dentro del rango de distribución del lince, donde los zorros fueron menos eficientes, consumieron menos frutos por unidad de tiempo y realizaron visitas más cortas. La disponibilidad local de frutos, la cobertura forestal y la personalidad individual también fueron variables importantes para entender los patrones de visita y forrajeo en un paisaje del miedo.

          5. Nuestros resultados muestran una cascada trófica potencial desde un superdepredador hasta los productores primarios. La presencia de lince puede reducir la abundancia de carnívoros frugívoros e inducir cambios en sus patrones de alimentación que pueden modificar los patrones de dispersión de semillas con probables consecuencias para la demografía de muchas especies de plantas de fruto carnoso. Concluimos que el conocimiento de las interacciones ecológicas que componen las redes tróficas es esencial para diseñar estrategias de conservación eficaces, especialmente en programas de reintroducción.

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          Recovery of large carnivores in Europe's modern human-dominated landscapes.

          The conservation of large carnivores is a formidable challenge for biodiversity conservation. Using a data set on the past and current status of brown bears (Ursus arctos), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), gray wolves (Canis lupus), and wolverines (Gulo gulo) in European countries, we show that roughly one-third of mainland Europe hosts at least one large carnivore species, with stable or increasing abundance in most cases in 21st-century records. The reasons for this overall conservation success include protective legislation, supportive public opinion, and a variety of practices making coexistence between large carnivores and people possible. The European situation reveals that large carnivores and people can share the same landscape. Copyright © 2014, American Association for the Advancement of Science.
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            The coefficient of determination R2 and intra-class correlation coefficient from generalized linear mixed-effects models revisited and expanded

            The coefficient of determination R 2 quantifies the proportion of variance explained by a statistical model and is an important summary statistic of biological interest. However, estimating R 2 for generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) remains challenging. We have previously introduced a version of R 2 that we called for Poisson and binomial GLMMs, but not for other distributional families. Similarly, we earlier discussed how to estimate intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) using Poisson and binomial GLMMs. In this paper, we generalize our methods to all other non-Gaussian distributions, in particular to negative binomial and gamma distributions that are commonly used for modelling biological data. While expanding our approach, we highlight two useful concepts for biologists, Jensen's inequality and the delta method, both of which help us in understanding the properties of GLMMs. Jensen's inequality has important implications for biologically meaningful interpretation of GLMMs, whereas the delta method allows a general derivation of variance associated with non-Gaussian distributions. We also discuss some special considerations for binomial GLMMs with binary or proportion data. We illustrate the implementation of our extension by worked examples from the field of ecology and evolution in the R environment. However, our method can be used across disciplines and regardless of statistical environments.
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              Trophic downgrading of planet Earth.

              Until recently, large apex consumers were ubiquitous across the globe and had been for millions of years. The loss of these animals may be humankind's most pervasive influence on nature. Although such losses are widely viewed as an ethical and aesthetic problem, recent research reveals extensive cascading effects of their disappearance in marine, terrestrial, and freshwater ecosystems worldwide. This empirical work supports long-standing theory about the role of top-down forcing in ecosystems but also highlights the unanticipated impacts of trophic cascades on processes as diverse as the dynamics of disease, wildfire, carbon sequestration, invasive species, and biogeochemical cycles. These findings emphasize the urgent need for interdisciplinary research to forecast the effects of trophic downgrading on process, function, and resilience in global ecosystems.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                tamaraburgos44@gmail.com
                Journal
                J Anim Ecol
                J Anim Ecol
                10.1111/(ISSN)1365-2656
                JANE
                The Journal of Animal Ecology
                John Wiley and Sons Inc. (Hoboken )
                0021-8790
                1365-2656
                23 March 2022
                May 2022
                : 91
                : 5 ( doiID: 10.1111/jane.v91.5 )
                : 1024-1035
                Affiliations
                [ 1 ] Área de Biodiversidad y Conservación, Department of Biology, Geology, Physics and Inorganic Chemistry Universidad Rey Juan Carlos Madrid Spain
                [ 2 ] Centro de Investigaciones sobre Desertificación CIDE, CSIC‐UVEG‐GV Carretera de Moncada a Náquera Moncada Spain
                [ 3 ] Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD – CSIC) Seville Spain
                [ 4 ] Terrestrial Ecology Group, Department of Ecology Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Madrid Spain
                [ 5 ] Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Cambio Global (CIBC‐UAM) Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Madrid Spain
                [ 6 ] Road Ecology Lab, Department of Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution, Faculty of Biology Complutense University of Madrid Madrid Spain
                Author notes
                [*] [* ] Correspondence

                Tamara Burgos

                Email: tamaraburgos44@ 123456gmail.com

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1879-6134
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1581-2621
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1362-8924
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9975-4846
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7267-6961
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9528-0786
                Article
                JANE13682 JAE-2021-00971.R1
                10.1111/1365-2656.13682
                9311824
                35322415
                a2cf449c-c439-4a33-ba25-83595d1a63be
                © 2022 The Authors. Journal of Animal Ecology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Ecological Society.

                This is an open access article under the terms of the http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.

                History
                : 17 December 2021
                : 16 February 2022
                Page count
                Figures: 4, Tables: 2, Pages: 12, Words: 9374
                Funding
                Funded by: Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades , doi 10.13039/100014440;
                Award ID: CGL2017‐84633‐P
                Award ID: FPU17/04375
                Categories
                Behavioural Ecology
                Conservation Ecology
                Global Change Ecologyy
                Trophic Interactions
                Research Article
                Research Articles
                Custom metadata
                2.0
                May 2022
                Converter:WILEY_ML3GV2_TO_JATSPMC version:6.1.7 mode:remove_FC converted:25.07.2022

                Ecology
                fleshy fruit,iberian lynx,iberian pear,individual variability,landscape of fear,mesopredator release,seed dispersal,trophic cascade

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