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      Alteration of immunological parameters in Infectious Bronchitis vaccinated-specific pathogen free broilers after the use of different Infectious Bursal Disease vaccines

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          Abstract

          The vaccines currently available to control infectious bursal disease (IBD) include live-attenuated and inactivated vaccines, immune-complex vaccines and vaccines consisting of viral constructs of herpesvirus of turkeys (HVT) genetically engineered in order to express VP2 surface protein. In order to evaluate the impact of vaccines on the chicken immune system, two animal trials were performed in Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) broiler chickens. In trial 1 birds were either vaccinated at one day-old with a dual rHVT construct vaccine, expressing VP2 protein of IBDV and F protein of Newcastle disease virus, or an immune-complex IBDV vaccine or birds were not vaccinated. At 14, 28 and 35 days, the bursas of Fabricius were collected for bursa:body weight (B:BW) ratio calculation. In trial 2, birds were vaccinated at one-day old according to the same protocol as trial 1, but at day 14 all groups also received a live infectious bronchitis (IB) vaccine. At 0, 7, 14, 21 and 28-days post IB vaccination, birds were tested by ELISA for IB serology, and, soon after the last blood sampling, they were euthanized for collection of Harderian glands, trachea and spleen and testing by flow cytometry for characterization of mononuclear cells.

          The immune-complex vaccine groups showed significantly lower B:BW ratio, lower IBV antibody titers and higher mean percentage of CD8+ T cells in spleen, trachea and Harderian glands when compared to the other experimental groups.

          The results of the in vivo trials coupled with a depth analysis of the repertoire of parameters involved in the immune response to IBD and IB vaccinations show as one vaccine may influence the immune response of other vaccines included in the vaccination program.

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          Infectious bursal disease virus of chickens: pathogenesis and immunosuppression.

          J Sharma, I-J Kim, S Rautenschlein … (2015)
          Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is an important immunosuppressive virus of chickens. The virus is ubiquitous and, under natural conditions, chickens acquire infection by the oral route. IgM+ cells serve as targets for the virus. The most extensive virus replication takes place in the bursa of Fabricius. The acute phase of the disease lasts for about 7-10 days. Within this phase, bursal follicles are depleted of B cells and the bursa becomes atrophic. Abundant viral antigen can be detected in the bursal follicles and other peripheral lymphoid organs such as the cecal tonsils and spleen. CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells accumulate at and near the site of virus replication. The virus-induced bursal T cells are activated, exhibit upregulation of cytokine genes, proliferate in response to in vitro stimulation with IBDV and have suppressive properties. Chickens may die during the acute phase of the disease although IBDV induced mortality is highly variable and depends, among other factors, upon the virulence of the virus strain. Chickens that survive the acute disease clear the virus and recover from its pathologic effects. Bursal follicles are repopulated with IgM(+) B cells. Clinical and subclinical infection with IBDV may cause immunosuppression. Both humoral and cellular immune responses are compromised. Inhibition of the humoral immunity is attributed to the destruction of immunoglobulin-producing cells by the virus. Other mechanisms such as altered antigen-presenting and helper T cell functions may also be involved. Infection with IBDV causes a transient inhibition of the in vitro proliferative response of T cells to mitogens. This inhibition is mediated by macrophages which are activated in virus-exposed chickens and exhibit a marked enhancement of expression of a number of cytokine genes. We speculate that T cell cytokines such as interferon (IFN)-gamma may stimulate macrophages to produce nitric oxide (NO) and other cytokines with anti-proliferative activity. Additional studies are needed to identify the possible direct immunosuppressive effect of IBDV on T cells and their functions. Studies are also needed to examine effects of the virus on innate immunity. Earlier data indicate that the virus did not affect normal natural killer (NK) cell levels in chickens.
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            Dysfunctional CMV-specific CD8(+) T cells accumulate in the elderly.

            E Remarque, Wei-juan Zheng, Graham Pawelec … (2004)
            Large clonal expansions of peripheral CD8(+) T cells carrying receptors for single epitopes of CMV are common in the elderly and may be associated with an immune risk phenotype predicting mortality. To study the effect of ageing on the ability of CMV-specific CD8(+) T cells to produce type 1- and type 2-cytokines, interferon-gamma-and IL-10-producing, CD8(+) T cell responses in the presence of CMV peptide antigen were measured in CMV-seropositive old and young donors. We found that large expansions of A2/NLV-specific CD8(+) T lymphocytes in the elderly are accompanied by a partial loss of antigen responsiveness as reflected in a greatly decreased frequency of antigen-specific IFN-gamma-and IL-10-producing cells. Thus, despite carrying specific antigen receptors, the majority of the clonally expanded CMV-specific CD8(+) cells in the elderly was dysfunctional according to these criteria. Our data indicated a bias towards a more anti-inflammatory response in the elderly. The accumulation of dysfunctional CMV-specific cells might fill the 'immunological space' and decrease the available repertoire of T cells for novel antigens. This might account for the increased incidence of many infectious diseases in the elderly.
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              Classification of infectious bursal disease virus into genogroups

              Linda O. Michel, Daral J Jackwood (2017)
              Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) causes infectious bursal disease (IBD), an immunosuppressive disease of poultry. The current classification scheme of IBDV is confusing because it is based on antigenic types (variant and classical) as well as pathotypes. Many of the amino acid changes differentiating these various classifications are found in a hypervariable region of the capsid protein VP2 (hvVP2), the major host protective antigen. Data from this study were used to propose a new classification scheme for IBDV based solely on genogroups identified from phylogenetic analysis of the hvVP2 of strains worldwide. Seven major genogroups were identified, some of which are geographically restricted and others that have global dispersion, such as genogroup 1. Genogroup 2 viruses are predominately distributed in North America, while genogroup 3 viruses are most often identified on other continents. Additionally, we have identified a population of genogroup 3 vvIBDV isolates that have an amino acid change from alanine to threonine at position 222 while maintaining other residues conserved in this genogroup (I242, I256 and I294). A222T is an important mutation because amino acid 222 is located in the first of four surface loops of hvVP2. A similar shift from proline to threonine at 222 is believed to play a role in the significant antigenic change of the genogroup 2 IBDV strains, suggesting that antigenic drift may be occurring in genogroup 3, possibly in response to antigenic pressure from vaccination. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00705-017-3500-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Elena Catelli
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Poult Sci
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Poult. Sci
                Title: Poultry Science
                Publisher: Published by Elsevier Inc. on behalf of Poultry Science Association Inc.
                ISSN (Print): 0032-5791
                ISSN (Electronic): 1525-3171
                Publication date PMC-release: 26 June 2020
                Publication date (Electronic): 26 June 2020
                Affiliations
                [∗ ]Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra, 50, 40064, Ozzano dell’Emilia (BO), Italy
                [# ]MSD Animal Health Srl, Via Fratelli Cervi, 20090, Segrate (MI), Italy
                Author notes
                [1 ]Correspondig author:Prof. Elena Catelli, Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra, 50, 40064, Ozzano dell’Emilia (BO), Italy; phone: +39 051 2097080 elena.catelli@ 123456unibo.it
                Article
                Publisher ID: S0032-5791(20)30373-4
                DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2020.05.054
                PMC ID: 7318956
                PubMed ID: 32867979
                SO-VID: a5fc9c1a-987b-46ab-8773-3a0693a33536
                Copyright © © 2020 Published by Elsevier Inc. on behalf of Poultry Science Association Inc.
                License:

                Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID-19. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVID-19-related research that is available on the COVID-19 resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for free by Elsevier for as long as the COVID-19 resource centre remains active.

                History
                Date received : 9 April 2020
                Date revision received : 11 May 2020
                Date accepted : 23 May 2020
                Categories
                Subject: Article

                Keywords: infectious bursal disease virus,avian coronavirus,vectored vaccine,immune-complex vaccine
                Data availability:
                Keywords: infectious bursal disease virus, avian coronavirus, vectored vaccine, immune-complex vaccine

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