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      Structural aging of human neurons is opposite of the changes in schizophrenia

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          Abstract

          Human mentality develops with age and is altered in psychiatric disorders, though their underlying mechanism is unknown. In this study, we analyzed nanometer-scale three-dimensional structures of brain tissues of the anterior cingulate cortex from eight schizophrenia and eight control cases. The distribution profiles of neurite curvature of the control cases showed a trend depending on their age, resulting in an age-correlated decrease in the standard deviation of neurite curvature (Pearson’s r = -0.80, p = 0.018). In contrast to the control cases, the schizophrenia cases deviate upward from this correlation, exhibiting a 60% higher neurite curvature compared with the controls ( p = 7.8 × 10 −4). The neurite curvature also showed a correlation with a hallucination score (Pearson’s r = 0.80, p = 1.8 × 10 −4), indicating that neurite structure is relevant to brain function. This report is based on our 3D analysis of human brain tissues over a decade and is unprecedented in terms of the number of cases. We suggest that neurite curvature plays a pivotal role in brain aging and can be used as a hallmark to exploit a novel treatment of schizophrenia.

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          Cognitive and emotional influences in anterior cingulate cortex.

          Bush, Luu, Posner (2000)
          Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is a part of the brain's limbic system. Classically, this region has been related to affect, on the basis of lesion studies in humans and in animals. In the late 1980s, neuroimaging research indicated that ACC was active in many studies of cognition. The findings from EEG studies of a focal area of negativity in scalp electrodes following an error response led to the idea that ACC might be the brain's error detection and correction device. In this article, these various findings are reviewed in relation to the idea that ACC is a part of a circuit involved in a form of attention that serves to regulate both cognitive and emotional processing. Neuroimaging studies showing that separate areas of ACC are involved in cognition and emotion are discussed and related to results showing that the error negativity is influenced by affect and motivation. In addition, the development of the emotional and cognitive roles of ACC are discussed, and how the success of this regulation in controlling responses might be correlated with cingulate size. Finally, some theories are considered about how the different subdivisions of ACC might interact with other cortical structures as a part of the circuits involved in the regulation of mental and emotional activity.
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            Neural plasticity in the ageing brain.

            The mechanisms involved in plasticity in the nervous system are thought to support cognition, and some of these processes are affected during normal ageing. Notably, cognitive functions that rely on the medial temporal lobe and prefrontal cortex, such as learning, memory and executive function, show considerable age-related decline. It is therefore not surprising that several neural mechanisms in these brain areas also seem to be particularly vulnerable during the ageing process. In this review, we discuss major advances in our understanding of age-related changes in the medial temporal lobe and prefrontal cortex and how these changes in functional plasticity contribute to behavioural impairments in the absence of significant pathology.
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              Neocortical neuron number in humans: effect of sex and age.

              Modern stereological methods provide precise and reliable estimates of the number of neurons in specific regions of the brain. We decided to estimate the total number of neocortical neurons in the normal human brain and to analyze it with respect to the major macro- and microscopical structural components, to study the internal relationships of these components, and to quantitate the influence of important physiological variables on brain structure. The 94 brains reported represent a consecutive collection of brains from the general Danish population. The average numbers of neocortical neurons were 19 billion in female brains and 23 billion in male brains, a 16% difference. In our study, which covered the age range from 20 years to 90 years, approximately 10% of all neocortical neurons are lost over the life span in both sexes. Sex and age were the main determinants of the total number of neurons in the human neocortex, whereas body size, per se, had no influence on neuron number. Some of the data presented have been analyzed by using new mathematical designs. An equation predicting the total neocortical neuron number in any individual in which sex and age are known is provided.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Formal analysisRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ResourcesRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ResourcesRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ResourcesRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Funding acquisitionRole: ResourcesRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Funding acquisitionRole: ResourcesRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Funding acquisitionRole: ResourcesRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Funding acquisitionRole: ResourcesRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ResourcesRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ResourcesRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS One
                plos
                PLOS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                23 June 2023
                2023
                : 18
                : 6
                : e0287646
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department of Bioengineering, Tokai University, Hiratsuka, Kanagawa, Japan
                [2 ] Department of Mathematics, Tokai University, Hiratsuka, Kanagawa, Japan
                [3 ] Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute (JASRI/SPring-8), Sayo, Hyogo, Japan
                [4 ] Photon Factory, High Energy Accelerator Research Organization KEK, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
                [5 ] Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL, United States of America
                [6 ] Department of Cell Biology, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
                [7 ] Department of Pathology, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
                [8 ] Department of Psychiatry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
                [9 ] Medical Genomics Center, Nagoya University Hospital, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
                [10 ] Tokyo Metropolitan Matsuzawa Hospital, Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan
                [11 ] Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan
                Federal University of Paraiba, BRAZIL
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: I have read the journal’s policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: Masanari Itokawa and Makoto Arai declare a competing interest, being authors of patents regarding therapeutic use of pyridoxamine for schizophrenia. The patent title is "Detection and treatment of schizophrenia" (US-2014335517-A1, JP 5288365, and EP 2189537). This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials. All other authors declare no competing interest.

                [¤]

                Current address: Pathophysiology of Mental Disorder, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5484-4861
                Article
                PONE-D-23-07288
                10.1371/journal.pone.0287646
                10289376
                b9e65b48-6a9c-436f-afa2-58c24ccb4110

                This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.

                History
                : 19 March 2023
                : 11 June 2023
                Page count
                Figures: 5, Tables: 0, Pages: 14
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100009619, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development;
                Award ID: JP21wm0425007 and JP21dk0307103
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100009619, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development;
                Award ID: JP19km0405216 and JP22tm0424222
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100009619, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development;
                Award ID: JP22wm0425019
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100009619, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development;
                Award ID: JP22wm0425019
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001691, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science;
                Award ID: 20K20602 and 21H04815
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001691, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science;
                Award ID: 21K07543 and 21H00194
                Award Recipient :
                This research was supported by the Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development https://www.amed.go.jp/ (JP21wm0425007 and JP21dk0307103 to NO, JP19km0405216 and JP22tm0424222 to IK, and JP22wm0425019 to Y Torii and SI) and by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science https://www.jsps.go.jp/ (20K20602 and 21H04815 to NO, and 21K07543 and 21H00194 to IK). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
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                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Mental Health and Psychiatry
                Schizophrenia
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