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      Cenozoic megatooth sharks occupied extremely high trophic positions

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          Abstract

          Trophic position is a fundamental characteristic of animals, yet it is unknown in many extinct species. In this study, we ground-truth the 15N/ 14N ratio of enameloid-bound organic matter (δ 15N EB) as a trophic level proxy by comparison to dentin collagen δ 15N and apply this method to the fossil record to reconstruct the trophic level of the megatooth sharks (genus Otodus). These sharks evolved in the Cenozoic, culminating in Otodus megalodon, a shark with a maximum body size of more than 15 m, which went extinct 3.5 million years ago. Very high δ 15N EB values (22.9 ± 4.4‰) of O. megalodon from the Miocene and Pliocene show that it occupied a higher trophic level than is known for any marine species, extinct or extant. δ 15N EB also indicates a dietary shift in sharks of the megatooth lineage as they evolved toward the gigantic O. megalodon, with the highest trophic level apparently reached earlier than peak size.

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          Abstract

          Nitrogen isotope ratios in fossil teeth place extinct megatooth sharks at the top of the marine food web.

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            A bacterial method for the nitrogen isotopic analysis of nitrate in seawater and freshwater.

            We report a new method for measurement of the isotopic composition of nitrate (NO3-) at the natural-abundance level in both seawater and freshwater. The method is based on the isotopic analysis of nitrous oxide (N20) generated from nitrate by denitrifying bacteria that lack N2O-reductase activity. The isotopic composition of both nitrogen and oxygen from nitrate are accessible in this way. In this first of two companion manuscripts, we describe the basic protocol and results for the nitrogen isotopes. The precision of the method is better than 0.2/1000 (1 SD) at concentrations of nitrate down to 1 microM, and the nitrogen isotopic differences among various standards and samples are accurately reproduced. For samples with 1 microM nitrate or more, the blank of the method is less than 10% of the signal size, and various approaches may reduce it further.
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              Standardized diet compositions and trophic levels of sharks

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: VisualizationRole: Writing - original draftRole: Writing - review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: Writing - review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing - review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: Validation
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: ResourcesRole: VisualizationRole: Writing - review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing - original draftRole: Writing - review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing - original draftRole: Writing - review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: Writing - review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: ResourcesRole: Validation
                Role: Investigation
                Role: InvestigationRole: Writing - review & editing
                Role: MethodologyRole: Validation
                Role: MethodologyRole: ValidationRole: Writing - review & editing
                Role: Funding acquisitionRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing - review & editing
                Role: ResourcesRole: ValidationRole: Writing - review & editing
                Role: Methodology
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: ResourcesRole: Supervision
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: VisualizationRole: Writing - original draftRole: Writing - review & editing
                Journal
                Sci Adv
                Sci Adv
                sciadv
                advances
                Science Advances
                American Association for the Advancement of Science
                2375-2548
                June 2022
                22 June 2022
                : 8
                : 25
                : eabl6529
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Geosciences, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA.
                [2 ]Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB23EQ, UK.
                [3 ]Department of Environmental Science, William Paterson University of New Jersey, Wayne, NJ 07470, USA.
                [4 ]Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of California Merced, Merced, CA 95343, USA.
                [5 ]Department of Environmental Science and Studies, DePaul University, Chicago, IL 60614, USA.
                [6 ]Department of Biological Sciences, DePaul University, Chicago, IL 60614, USA.
                [7 ]Sternberg Museum of Natural History, Fort Hays State University, Hays, KS 67601, USA.
                [8 ]Department of Marine and Earth Sciences, Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL 33965, USA.
                [9 ]Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences. Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
                [10 ]Emmy Noether Group for Hominin Meat Consumption, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany.
                [11 ]Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, 60325 Frankfurt, Germany.
                [12 ]Johannes Gutenberg University, Institute of Geosciences, 55128 Mainz, Germany.
                [13 ]Department of Climate Geochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, 55128 Mainz, Germany.
                [14 ]Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467, USA.
                [15 ]Department of Earth Sciences, ETH Zürich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland.
                Author notes
                [* ]Corresponding author. Email: emma.r.kast@ 123456gmail.com
                [†]

                These authors contributed equally to this work.

                [‡]

                Present address: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA.

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2905-3793
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4051-7568
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4900-3101
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7836-809X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8029-3576
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1430-3382
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0304-6111
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8449-5909
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5080-9508
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7399-745X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9165-2586
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9373-8634
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7206-5079
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7534-4420
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7923-1973
                Article
                abl6529
                10.1126/sciadv.abl6529
                9217088
                35731884
                ca39146c-fe14-410a-b5a1-ac7aa9b37f7d
                Copyright © 2022 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works. Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (CC BY).

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 29 July 2021
                : 05 May 2022
                Funding
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000001, National Science Foundation;
                Award ID: 1830638
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000001, National Science Foundation;
                Award ID: 1830480
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000001, National Science Foundation;
                Award ID: 1830858
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000001, National Science Foundation;
                Award ID: 1830581
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100010663, H2020 European Research Council;
                Award ID: 681450
                Categories
                Research Article
                Earth, Environmental, Ecological, and Space Sciences
                SciAdv r-articles
                Ecology
                Geochemistry
                Ecology
                Custom metadata
                Penchie Limbo

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