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      Timing of Breakfast, Lunch, and Dinner. Effects on Obesity and Metabolic Risk

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          Abstract

          (1) Background: Eating is fundamental to survival. Animals choose when to eat depending on food availability. The timing of eating can synchronize different organs and tissues that are related to food digestion, absorption, or metabolism, such as the stomach, gut, liver, pancreas, or adipose tissue. Studies performed in experimental animal models suggest that food intake is a major external synchronizer of peripheral clocks. Therefore, the timing of eating may be decisive in fat accumulation and mobilization and affect the effectiveness of weight loss treatments. (2) Results: We will review multiple studies about the timing of the three main meals of the day, breakfast, lunch and dinner, and its potential impact on metabolism, glucose tolerance, and obesity-related factors. We will also delve into several mechanisms that may be implicated in the obesogenic effect of eating late. Conclusion: Unusual eating time can produce a disruption in the circadian system that might lead to unhealthy consequences.

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          Timing of food intake predicts weight loss effectiveness.

          M Garaulet, P Gómez-Abellán, J Alburquerque-Béjar … (2013)
          There is emerging literature demonstrating a relationship between the timing of feeding and weight regulation in animals. However, whether the timing of food intake influences the success of a weight-loss diet in humans is unknown. To evaluate the role of food timing in weight-loss effectiveness in a sample of 420 individuals who followed a 20-week weight-loss treatment. Participants (49.5% female subjects; age (mean ± s.d.): 42 ± 11 years; BMI: 31.4 ± 5.4 kg m(-2)) were grouped in early eaters and late eaters, according to the timing of the main meal (lunch in this Mediterranean population). 51% of the subjects were early eaters and 49% were late eaters (lunch time before and after 1500 hours, respectively), energy intake and expenditure, appetite hormones, CLOCK genotype, sleep duration and chronotype were studied. Late lunch eaters lost less weight and displayed a slower weight-loss rate during the 20 weeks of treatment than early eaters (P=0.002). Surprisingly, energy intake, dietary composition, estimated energy expenditure, appetite hormones and sleep duration was similar between both groups. Nevertheless, late eaters were more evening types, had less energetic breakfasts and skipped breakfast more frequently that early eaters (all; P 0.05). Eating late may influence the success of weight-loss therapy. Novel therapeutic strategies should incorporate not only the caloric intake and macronutrient distribution - as is classically done - but also the timing of food.
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            High caloric intake at breakfast vs. dinner differentially influences weight loss of overweight and obese women.

            Daniela J Jakubowicz, Maayan Barnea, Julio Wainstein … (2013)
            Few studies examined the association between time-of-day of nutrient intake and the metabolic syndrome. Our goal was to compare a weight loss diet with high caloric intake during breakfast to an isocaloric diet with high caloric intake at dinner. Overweight and obese women (BMI 32.4 ± 1.8 kg/m(2) ) with metabolic syndrome were randomized into two isocaloric (~1400 kcal) weight loss groups, a breakfast (BF) (700 kcal breakfast, 500 kcal lunch, 200 kcal dinner) or a dinner (D) group (200 kcal breakfast, 500 kcal lunch, 700 kcal dinner) for 12 weeks. The BF group showed greater weight loss and waist circumference reduction. Although fasting glucose, insulin, and ghrelin were reduced in both groups, fasting glucose, insulin, and HOMA-IR decreased significantly to a greater extent in the BF group. Mean triglyceride levels decreased by 33.6% in the BF group, but increased by 14.6% in the D group. Oral glucose tolerance test led to a greater decrease of glucose and insulin in the BF group. In response to meal challenges, the overall daily glucose, insulin, ghrelin, and mean hunger scores were significantly lower, whereas mean satiety scores were significantly higher in the BF group. High-calorie breakfast with reduced intake at dinner is beneficial and might be a useful alternative for the management of obesity and metabolic syndrome. Copyright © 2013 The Obesity Society.
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              Endogenous circadian system and circadian misalignment impact glucose tolerance via separate mechanisms in humans.

              Christopher J Morris, Jessica N Yang, Joanna I Garcia … (2015)
              Glucose tolerance is lower in the evening and at night than in the morning. However, the relative contribution of the circadian system vs. the behavioral cycle (including the sleep/wake and fasting/feeding cycles) is unclear. Furthermore, although shift work is a diabetes risk factor, the separate impact on glucose tolerance of the behavioral cycle, circadian phase, and circadian disruption (i.e., misalignment between the central circadian pacemaker and the behavioral cycle) has not been systematically studied. Here we show--by using two 8-d laboratory protocols--in healthy adults that the circadian system and circadian misalignment have distinct influences on glucose tolerance, both separate from the behavioral cycle. First, postprandial glucose was 17% higher (i.e., lower glucose tolerance) in the biological evening (8:00 PM) than morning (8:00 AM; i.e., a circadian phase effect), independent of the behavioral cycle effect. Second, circadian misalignment itself (12-h behavioral cycle inversion) increased postprandial glucose by 6%. Third, these variations in glucose tolerance appeared to be explained, at least in part, by different mechanisms: during the biological evening by decreased pancreatic β-cell function (27% lower early-phase insulin) and during circadian misalignment presumably by decreased insulin sensitivity (elevated postprandial glucose despite 14% higher late-phase insulin) without change in early-phase insulin. We explored possible contributing factors, including changes in polysomnographic sleep and 24-h hormonal profiles. We demonstrate that the circadian system importantly contributes to the reduced glucose tolerance observed in the evening compared with the morning. Separately, circadian misalignment reduces glucose tolerance, providing a mechanism to help explain the increased diabetes risk in shift workers.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Nutrients
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Nutrients
                Journal ID (publisher-id): nutrients
                Title: Nutrients
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2072-6643
                Publication date (Electronic): 01 November 2019
                Publication date Collection: November 2019
                Volume: 11
                Issue: 11
                Electronic Location Identifier: 2624
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Physiology, University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia; Spain; jesus.lopez5@ 123456um.es (J.L.-M.); puriki4@ 123456hotmail.com (P.G.-A.)
                [2 ]IMIB-Arrixaca, 30120 Murcia, Spain
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: garaulet@ 123456um.es ; Tel.: +34-868-88-36-39
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4066-3509
                Article
                Publisher ID: nutrients-11-02624
                DOI: 10.3390/nu11112624
                PMC ID: 6893547
                PubMed ID: 31684003
                SO-VID: cb185a41-aa78-42c9-8d52-b63a97545996
                Copyright © © 2019 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 20 September 2019
                Date accepted : 28 October 2019
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Nutrition & Dietetics
                Keywords: circadian rhythms,food timing,melatonin,nutrigenetic,obesity,weight loss
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Nutrition & Dietetics
                Keywords: circadian rhythms, food timing, melatonin, nutrigenetic, obesity, weight loss

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