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      Oil droplet fouling and differential toxicokinetics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in embryos of Atlantic haddock and cod

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          Abstract

          The impact of crude oil pollution on early life stages (ELS) of fish, including larvae and embryos, has received considerable attention in recent years. Of the organic components present in crude oil, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are considered the main class of compounds responsible for toxic effects in marine organisms. Although evidence suggests that they are more toxic, alkylated PAHs remain much less studied than their unsubstituted congeners. Recently, it was established that embryos of Atlantic haddock ( Melanogrammus aeglefinus) are particularly sensitive to dispersed crude oil, and it was hypothesized that this was caused by direct interaction with crude oil droplets, which adhered to the chorion of exposed embryos. Such a phenomenon would increase the potential for uptake of less water-soluble compounds, including alkylated PAHs. In the current study, we compared the uptake of parent and alkylated PAHs in Atlantic cod ( Gadus morhua) and haddock embryos exposed to dispersed crude oil at a range of environmentally relevant concentrations (10–600 μg oil/liter seawater). Although the species are biologically very similar, the cod chorion does not become fouled with oil droplets, even when the two species are exposed to dispersions of crude oil droplets under similar conditions. A close correlation between the degree of fouling and toxicological response (heart defects, craniofacial malformation) was observed. Oil droplet fouling in haddock led to both quantitative and qualitative differences in PAH uptake. Finally, kinetic data on a large suite of PAHs showed differential elimination, suggesting differential metabolism of unsubstituted versus alkylated compounds.

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            Ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity in fish as a biomarker of chemical exposure.

            This review compiles and evaluates existing scientific information on the use, limitations, and procedural considerations for EROD activity (a catalytic measurement of cytochrome P4501A induction) as a biomarker in fish. A multitude of chemicals induce EROD activity in a variety of fish species, the most potent inducers being structural analogs of 2,3,7,8-tetracholordibenzo-p-dioxin. Although certain chemicals may inhibit EROD induction/activity, this interference is generally not a drawback to the use of EROD induction as a biomarker. The various methods of EROD analysis currently in use yield comparable results, particularly when data are expressed as relative rates of EROD activity. EROD induction in fish is well characterized, the most important modifying factors being fish species, reproductive status and age, all of which can be controlled through proper study design. Good candidate species for biomonitoring should have a wide range between basal and induced EROD activity (e.g., common carp, channel catfish, and mummichog). EROD activity has proven value as a biomarker in a number of field investigations of bleached kraft mill and industrial effluents, contaminated sediments, and chemical spills. Research on mechanisms of CYP1A-induced toxicity suggests that EROD activity may not only indicate chemical exposure, but also may also precede effects at various levels of biological organization. A current research need is the development of chemical exposure-response relationships for EROD activity in fish. In addition, routine reporting in the literature of EROD activity in standard positive and negative control material will enhance confidence in comparing results from different studies using this biomarker.
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              Crude oil impairs cardiac excitation-contraction coupling in fish.

              Crude oil is known to disrupt cardiac function in fish embryos. Large oil spills, such as the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) disaster that occurred in 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico, could severely affect fish at impacted spawning sites. The physiological mechanisms underlying such potential cardiotoxic effects remain unclear. Here, we show that crude oil samples collected from the DWH spill prolonged the action potential of isolated cardiomyocytes from juvenile bluefin and yellowfin tunas, through the blocking of the delayed rectifier potassium current (I(Kr)). Crude oil exposure also decreased calcium current (I(Ca)) and calcium cycling, which disrupted excitation-contraction coupling in cardiomyocytes. Our findings demonstrate a cardiotoxic mechanism by which crude oil affects the regulation of cellular excitability, with implications for life-threatening arrhythmias in vertebrates.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: InvestigationRole: Resources
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Investigation
                Role: InvestigationRole: Resources
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                5 July 2017
                2017
                : 12
                : 7
                : e0180048
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
                [2 ]Department of Chemistry, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
                [3 ]Environmental Technology, SINTEF Ocean, Trondheim, Norway
                [4 ]National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
                [5 ]Department of Environmental Science, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
                University of Siena, ITALY
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0455-3545
                Article
                PONE-D-17-12109
                10.1371/journal.pone.0180048
                5497984
                28678887
                cfd5efc2-ec8f-4b00-8b7f-333af745ace7

                This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.

                History
                : 28 March 2017
                : 8 June 2017
                Page count
                Figures: 9, Tables: 1, Pages: 26
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100005416, Norges Forskningsråd;
                Award ID: 234367
                Award Recipient :
                This work was financed by the Norwegian Research Council (Grant Nr. 234367, www.forskningsradet.no). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Developmental Biology
                Embryology
                Embryos
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Biochemistry
                Lipids
                Oils
                Engineering and Technology
                Energy and Power
                Fuels
                Fossil Fuels
                Crude Oil
                Physical Sciences
                Materials Science
                Materials by Attribute
                Fuels
                Fossil Fuels
                Crude Oil
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Developmental Biology
                Embryology
                Chorion
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Developmental Biology
                Life Cycles
                Larvae
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Animals
                Vertebrates
                Fishes
                Osteichthyes
                Cod
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Animals
                Vertebrates
                Fishes
                Marine Fish
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Marine Biology
                Marine Fish
                Earth Sciences
                Marine and Aquatic Sciences
                Marine Biology
                Marine Fish
                Research and Analysis Methods
                Mathematical and Statistical Techniques
                Statistical Methods
                Multivariate Analysis
                Principal Component Analysis
                Physical Sciences
                Mathematics
                Statistics (Mathematics)
                Statistical Methods
                Multivariate Analysis
                Principal Component Analysis
                Custom metadata
                All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

                Uncategorized
                Uncategorized

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