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      Effective and Efficient Stand Magnifier Use in Visually Impaired Children

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          Abstract

          Purpose: The main objective of this study was to analyze the effectiveness and efficiency of magnifier use in children with visual impairment who did not use a low vision aid earlier, in an ecologically valid goal-directed perceptuomotor task.

          Methods: Participants were twenty-nine 4- to 8-year-old children with visual impairment and 47 age-matched children with normal vision. After seeing a first symbol (an Lea Hyvärinen [LH] symbol), children were instructed to (1) move the stand magnifier as quickly as possible toward a small target symbol (another LH symbol that could only be seen by using the magnifier), (2) compare the two symbols, and (3) move the magnifier to one of two response areas to indicate whether the two symbols were identical. Performance was measured in terms of accuracy, response time, identification time, and movement time. Viewing distance, as well as hand and eye dominance while using the magnifier was assessed.

          Results: There were no significant differences between the two groups in accuracy, reaction time, and movement time. Contrary to the prediction, children with visual impairment required less time to identify small symbols than children with normal vision. Both within-subject and between-subject variability in viewing distance were smaller in the visually impaired group than in the normally sighted group. In the visually impaired group, a larger viewing distance was associated with shorter identification time, which in turn was associated with higher accuracy. In the normally sighted group, a faster movement with the magnifier and a faster identification were associated with increasing age.

          Conclusion: The findings indicate that children with visual impairment can use the stand magnifier adequately and efficiently. The normally sighted children show an age-related development in movement time and identification time and show more variability in viewing distance, which is not found in visually impaired children. Visually impaired children seem to choose a standard but less adaptive strategy in which they primarily used their preferred hand to manipulate the magnifier and their preferred eye to identify the symbol.

          Trial registration: Registered at http://www.trialregister.nl; NTR2380

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          Most cited references37

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          Motor Task Variation Induces Structural Learning

          Daniel A. Braun, Ad Aertsen, Daniel Wolpert … (2009)
          Summary When we have learned a motor skill, such as cycling or ice-skating, we can rapidly generalize to novel tasks, such as motorcycling or rollerblading [1–8]. Such facilitation of learning could arise through two distinct mechanisms by which the motor system might adjust its control parameters. First, fast learning could simply be a consequence of the proximity of the original and final settings of the control parameters. Second, by structural learning [9–14], the motor system could constrain the parameter adjustments to conform to the control parameters' covariance structure. Thus, facilitation of learning would rely on the novel task parameters' lying on the structure of a lower-dimensional subspace that can be explored more efficiently. To test between these two hypotheses, we exposed subjects to randomly varying visuomotor tasks of fixed structure. Although such randomly varying tasks are thought to prevent learning, we show that when subsequently presented with novel tasks, subjects exhibit three key features of structural learning: facilitated learning of tasks with the same structure, strong reduction in interference normally observed when switching between tasks that require opposite control strategies, and preferential exploration along the learned structure. These results suggest that skill generalization relies on task variation and structural learning.
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            New visual acuity test for pre-school children.

            P Laurinen, R Näsänen, L Hyvärinen (1980)
            A new test chart was developed for the measurement of visual acuity of pre-school children. The symbols of the test are circle, square, apple and house. These were so designed that each symbol measures visual acuity similarly. This feature of the test was verified experimentally. The visual acuity values measured by the individual symbols correlated highly with the visual acuity values measured with the whole test (0.82-0.86). The correlation between the visual acuity values measured repeatedly, the reliability of the new test, was found to be 0.94 for adult subjects. The new visual acuity test thus fulfils the statistical criteria of a good visual acuity test. Because both children and nurses seem to like the new test, it may be useful in the assessment of visual acuity in pre-school children.
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              Amblyopia and real-world visuomotor tasks.

              Merrick Moseley, Simon Grant (2011)
              A question of increasing interest to the basic science and clinical management communities during the past decade is whether children and adults with amblyopia and associated binocular visual abnormalities experience difficulties in executing real-world actions, to which vision normally makes an important functional contribution. Here we provide objective evidence that they do, by reviewing quantitative data from a number of studies comparing their performance with that of matched normally sighted subjects on a range of everyday visuomotor tasks. Because in real life, these tasks (grasping objects, walking, driving, reading) are habitually performed with both eyes open, our focus is on their binocular skill deficits, rather than those with their amblyopic eye alone. General findings are that individuals with abnormal binocularity show impairments in critical aspects of motor control--movement speed, accuracy or both--on every one of these activities, the extent of which correlates with their loss of stereoacuity, but not the severity of their amblyopia. Impairments were especially marked when the task was time-limited or novel. Implications are that children and adults with severely reduced or absent binocularity may be accident-prone when required to respond rapidly to unexpected situations and that amblyopia management should focus more attention on evaluating and restoring stereoacuity and stereomotion processing.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Front Psychol
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Front Psychol
                Journal ID (publisher-id): Front. Psychol.
                Title: Frontiers in Psychology
                Publisher: Frontiers Media S.A.
                ISSN (Electronic): 1664-1078
                Publication date (Electronic): 23 June 2016
                Publication date Collection: 2016
                Volume: 7
                Electronic Location Identifier: 944
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, Netherlands
                [2] 2Bartiméus Institute for the Visually Impaired Zeist, Netherlands
                [3] 3Expertise Center Health, Social Care and Technology, Saxion University of Applied Sciences Enschede, Netherlands
                [4] 4Department of Psychology, University of Groningen Groningen, Netherlands
                [5] 5VU University Medical Center Amsterdam, Netherlands
                [6] 6Department Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Centre Nijmegen, Netherlands
                Author notes

                Edited by: Jordy Kaufman, Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

                Reviewed by: Victoria Simms, Ulster University, UK; Bianca Jovanovic, Justus-Liebig-University, Germany

                *Correspondence: Joyce Liebrand-Schurink, j.schurink@ 123456saxion.nl

                This article was submitted to Developmental Psychology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology

                Article
                DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00944
                PMC ID: 4917530
                PubMed ID: 27445912
                SO-VID: db15d4e6-e919-4b66-ab20-b2747b24c648
                Copyright © Copyright © 2016 Liebrand-Schurink, Cox, van Rens, Cillessen, Meulenbroek and Boonstra.
                License:

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                Date received : 27 February 2016
                Date accepted : 08 June 2016
                Page count
                Figures: 7, Tables: 2, Equations: 0, References: 48, Pages: 11, Words: 0
                Funding
                Funded by: ODAS Stichting 10.13039/501100004786
                Categories
                Subject: Psychology
                Subject: Original Research

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                Keywords: visually impaired children,magnifier,fine motor skills,motor development,perceptuomotor task,low vision
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                Keywords: visually impaired children, magnifier, fine motor skills, motor development, perceptuomotor task, low vision

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