Introduction
Hypertension is one of the most common and important health problems worldwide.1 It
has been estimated that 29% of the world's adult population, or 1.56 billion people,
will have hypertension by the year 2025.2 The prevalence of high blood pressure and
its adverse consequences result in a heavy burden for hypertensive patients from high‐,
middle‐, and low‐income countries.2, 3 Many monogenic causes of hypertension have
been reported. However, determining the causes of essential hypertension has been
hampered because it is a complex disorder with genetic, epigenetic, and environmental
determinants. Among numerous environmental factors, sodium intake is thought to be
an important one.
Sodium is essential for cellular homeostasis and fluid balance. However, excessive
sodium in the body, as a consequence of increased dietary intake and/or impaired excretion,
is the most common risk factor for hypertension.4 There is overwhelming evidence that
high dietary sodium intake increases the risk for incident hypertension and leads
to worse cardiovascular outcomes.4, 5 Excess sodium intake also attenuates the beneficial
effects of many antihypertensive drugs, including blockers of the renin–angiotensin
system (RAS).6 A modest reduction in dietary salt intake causes a significant fall
in blood pressure in both hypertensive and normotensive individuals.7 Therefore, a
low‐sodium diet is a major preventive and treatment scheme for hypertension.8
The kidney plays a vital role in the regulation of sodium balance and blood pressure.
However, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which is the organ first exposed to components
of food, has taste receptors and sensors for electrolytes (eg, sodium, potassium,
phosphate).9 Therefore, in addition to the kidney, there is increasing realization
of the importance of the GI tract in the regulation of sodium balance, and consequently
on blood pressure level. For example, GI tract–derived hormones and peptides regulate
the autocrine function of renal hormones, affecting renal function, including sodium
excretion.10 We have reported that the GI tract–derived hormone, gastrin, and renal
receptors synergistically regulate sodium excretion.11 In this article, we present
an overview of GI tract–mediated regulation of blood pressure, highlight potential
strategies for the prevention and treatment of hypertension, and also attempt a look
into the future.
Renal Regulation of Sodium Homeostasis
The kidney is crucial in the long‐term control of blood pressure by regulating sodium
homeostasis.12 This concept has been confirmed by renal transplantation studies in
humans and experimental animals.13, 14, 15, 16, 17 For example, transplantation of
kidneys from adult stroke‐prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SPSHR) causes hypertension
in normotensive Wistar‐Kyoto (WKY) rats, indicating a major role of the kidney in
SPSHR hypertension18; we have also reported that germline deletion of the D5 dopamine
receptor (D5R) causes salt‐sensitive hypertension. Blood pressure was similar between
wild‐type mice and wild‐type mice transplanted with wild‐type kidneys, while blood
pressure was higher in wild‐type mice transplanted with D5R−/− kidneys than wild‐type
kidneys, which also indicates the importance of the kidney in the development of hypertension.17
All nephron segments of the kidney, including the proximal tubule and medullary thick
ascending limb of Henle, participate in the regulation of blood pressure.19, 20, 21,
22, 23 The renal proximal tubule (RPT) is responsible for 65% to 70% of filtered sodium
and water reabsorption under normal conditions. Indeed, several studies have shown
that human essential hypertension is associated with increased sodium transport in
the RPT.21, 22, 23 The inappropriate sodium retention in hypertension results from
an enhanced renal sodium transport per se, as well as a failure to respond appropriately
to signals that decrease renal sodium transport in the face of increased sodium intake.
Sodium reabsorption in the RPT is controlled through ion cotransporters/exchangers/pump,19
such as the sodium glucose cotransporter, sodium amino acid cotransporter, sodium
hydrogen exchanger (NHE), sodium phosphate cotransporter type 2, sodium bicarbonate
cotransporter, and NBCe2, located at the luminal/apical membrane, and NBCe1 and Na+‐K+‐ATPase
located at the basolateral membrane, among others.19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 These
sodium cotransporters, exchangers, and pump are influenced by numerous neural, hormonal,
and humoral factors. These neural, hormonal, and humoral factors can be divided into
2 groups based on their effects on sodium excretion. One group leads to natriuresis,
while the other group leads to antinatriuresis (ie, decreased sodium excretion). These
2 groups keep the sodium balance and ultimately blood pressure within the normal range.
Renal dopamine and angiotensin II (Ang II), via dopamine receptors or AT1 receptor,
are examples of members of these 2 opposing groups. Thus, in general, activation of
renal dopamine receptors leads to diuresis and natriuresis, whereas activation of
renal AT1 receptors leads to antidiuresis and antinatriuresis. In several hypertensive
states, dopamine receptor–induced natriuresis is decreased and AT1 receptor‐mediated
antinatriuresis is augmented, which consequently lead to sodium retention and hypertension.12,
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27
Salt Sensing and Absorption in the GI Tract
Salt sensing is a complex physiological response. The objective of salt sensing is
to keep the sodium balance in the normal range. Indeed, salt sensing occurs in many
organs of the body, including the GI tract, from the tongue, stomach, and small and
large intestines.28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 As aforementioned, the GI tract is the first
organ exposed to ingested sodium. In the salt‐depleted state, sensing the need for
sodium in the tongue and stomach would lead the person to ingest more salt,34 and
in the addition, make the GI tract secrete hormones that increase absorption/reabsorption
of sodium in different organs in the body, including the kidney. The converse occurs
in the salt‐replete state; less salt is ingested and the GI tract triggers the mechanisms
to induce natriuresis and diuresis. Sodium given orally is excreted more rapidly than
that administered intravenously in many but not all studies.9, 10, 35, 36, 37, 38
The negative studies should not be taken to dispute the presence of a “gastro‐renal
reflex” because there are sodium sensors outside the GI tract and kidney (eg, vascular
smooth muscles) that “instruct” the kidney to decrease sodium transport.39 These mechanisms
include the recruitment of aversive taste pathways by activating the sour‐ and bitter‐taste‐sensing
cells, and taste receptors in the kidney.40, 41, 42 Therefore, the targeting of sodium
sensors in different parts of the body, including those in the GI tract, may represent
new targets for antihypertensive therapy.
Salt Sensing in the Oral Cavity Controls Salt Intake
The oral cavity is the first organ in the GI tract to be exposed to food and nutrients.
The taste system is a chemical detection system in the oral cavity, where tastants
act as cues for salty, sweet, umami, bitter, and sour tastes on taste buds; a sixth
taste (lipid) has also been proposed.43 A single taste bud contains 50 to 100 taste
cells that detect sugars, amino acids, poisons, acids, and minerals. Taste receptors
have been identified as ion channels (for salt or sour detection) or G‐protein coupled
receptors, which are responsive to bitter, sweet, or umami.44 Interestingly, different
from the other 4 tastes, salty taste is unique in that increasing salt concentration
fundamentally transforms an innately appetitive stimulus into a powerfully aversive
one. This appetitive‐aversive balance helps to maintain appropriate salt consumption.40
Salt (sodium) can also be sensed by taste receptors, via amiloride‐sensitive and ‐insensitive
pathways. Low concentrations (attractive) of NaCl (<100 mmol/L) stimulate the attractive
salt taste pathway that is selective for sodium and blocked by amiloride.40, 45, 46
High concentration (aversive) of NaCl (>150 mmol/L) is nonselective for sodium and
is amiloride insensitive.45, 47 Mice lacking ENaCα selectively in taste receptor cells
exhibit a complete loss of salt attraction and sodium taste responses, without affecting
taste for sour, bitter, sweet, and umami or the aversive salt pathway.45 However,
high salt in food also recruits the 2 primary aversive taste pathways, ie, sour and
bitter, which may have evolved to ensure that high levels of salt reliably trigger
robust behavioral rejection, thus preventing its potentially detrimental effect,40
including hypertension. By contrast, the amiloride‐insensitive mechanism, which predominates
in circumvallate and foliate taste buds, is involved with a variant of the nonselective cation
channel TRPV1 and other salt transduction mechanisms.47
The amiloride‐sensitive salt taste response is regulated by hormones and humoral factors,48,
49 including Ang II, aldosterone, ghrelin, and insulin.50, 51 Ang II and aldosterone,
which are stimulated in states of sodium deficit and are important in the maintenance
of a positive sodium balance, also affect salt appetite. The AT1 receptor and ENaC
have been shown to colocalize in a subset of mouse taste bud cells.50 Whether or not
the mineralocorticoid receptor also colocalizes with ENaC in this subset of mouse
taste buds has not been shown, but aldosterone has been reported to increase the expression
of β and γENaC and ENaC activity in these cells.51 Shigemura et al suggested that
Ang II may increase sodium intake by reducing amiloride‐sensitive taste response that
is subsequently suppressed by aldosterone via enhancement of the amiloride‐sensitive
taste response.50
The taste of salt may be altered in hypertension. Some hypertensive patients have
higher salt taste sensitivity threshold than normotensives subjects.52, 53, 54 A similar
phenomenon may be found in some hypertensive animals. Thus, compared with WKY rats,
SHRs have a greater preference for saline and this preference for saline is not related
to the existing blood pressure.55, 56 However, Dahl‐salt sensitive rats have lower
salt intake than Dahl‐salt resistant rats.57 Salt sensitivity of blood pressure also
does not correlate with salt appetite in mice.58 Interestingly, taste sensitivity
is decreased in smokers.46 Impaired taste of salt has been reported to be associated
with hypertension in Japanese women; there is a higher prevalence of hypertension
in Japanese men married to Japanese women with impaired taste of salt.59
GI Tract and Sodium Absorption
The GI tract is responsible for the digestion and absorption of ingested food and
nutrients. Another essential function of the GI tract is the coordinated regulation
of the secretion and absorption of electrolytes, minerals, and fluids. In healthy
adult humans, the GI tract is filled with secreted fluid amounting to 8 to 10 L per
day with an additional 1.5 to 2 L per day from ingested food. Most of the electrolytes
and fluids are absorbed by the small (≈95%) and large (≈4%) intestines. The intestinal
absorption of fluid by GI epithelial cells occurs via active transport of Na+ and
Cl−
60, 61; NaCl absorption occurs from the small intestine to the distal colon. Healthy
adult humans ingest about 250 to 300 mmol sodium per day. However, there is less than
4 mmol sodium in the excrement, suggesting that almost all of NaCl is absorbed in
the GI tract. Apparently, there is no difference in sodium absorption between hypertensive
patients and healthy controls and Dahl salt‐sensitive and salt‐resistant rats.62 Thus,
an augmented ability of the intestines to absorb sodium does not participate in the
pathogenesis of most cases of hypertension. However, dietary fructose increases sodium
absorption by the intestines.63 Increased intestinal sodium absorption is associated
with increased blood pressure in elderly humans.64 However, NHE activity is increased
in the jejunum and ileum of younger (6–9 weeks) but not older (12 weeks) spontaneously
hypertensive rats.65, 66 NHE2, NHE3, and NHE8 are found at the brush border membrane
of the small intestinal epithelium. Studies in Nhe2
−/− and Nhe3
−/− mice have demonstrated that NHE3 accounts for most of the neutral NaCl absorption
in the small intestine.60, 67 Inhibition of NHE3 activity only in the GI tract decreased
urinary sodium excretion and increased stool sodium by similar amounts but to a lesser
degree (≈20–50 mmol sodium/day) in humans than in rats.61, 68 Angiotensin‐converting
enzyme inhibition by ramipril plus intestinal NHE3 inhibition results in an additive
blood pressure–lowering effect.68 In the colon, sodium absorption is mediated by ENaC;
a high salt diet decreases the expression of β and γ ENaC.69 These suggest that intestinal
NHE3 and ENaC blockade could be new treatment strategies for hypertension.
Gut‐Derived Hormones, Secreted in Response to Salt Sensors, Modulate Renal Sodium
Excretion
The theories and findings underpinning the GI‐mediated natriuretic signaling still
remain partially solved or incomplete. Nevertheless it is now clear that GI‐derived
hormones and peptides play important roles in the regulation of renal sodium transport
and blood pressure.10 The GI‐derived hormones could be grouped into 3 classes, namely,
GI hormones, pancreatic hormones, and GI neuropeptides. According to their ability
to affect sodium excretion, we classify these hormones and neuropeptides into 2 classes;
1 increases and the other decreases sodium excretion (Table).70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75,
76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96,
97, 98, 99, 100, 101
Table 1
Summary of Gut‐Derived Hormones, Their Receptors, and Functions in Animals and in
Renal Cells
Hormone/Peptide
Source
Receptor
Receptor Type
Renal Function in Animals
Renal Site of Hormone Actions
Function in Renal Cells
Promotes natriuresis
Amylin
Pancreas
Amylin receptor
GPCR
Increases sodium excretion, GFR, and RPF in anesthetized rats70
Proximal tubule, distal nephron, juxtaglomerular apparatus
Stimulates proliferation of primary RPT cells from SD rats71
Glucagon
Pancreas
Glucagon receptor
GPCR
Inhibits the reabsorption of water and Na+ in hormone‐deprived rats72
Proximal tubule
Acutely (1 hour) inhibits, but chronically (24 hours) activates NHE3 activity in OKP
cells73
Gastrin
Stomach
CCKAR, CCKBR
GPCR
Induces natriuresis and diuresis in WKY rats but not SHRs11, 74
Proximal tubule
Inhibits NKA and NHE3 activity in RPT cells from WKY rats and human11, 75
Ghrelin
Stomach
GHSR
GPCR (GHSR1a), a 5‐transmembrane spanning form, GHSR1b
Promotes diuresis and renal nitric oxide production in Dahl salt‐sensitive hypertensive
rats76; stimulates distal nephron‐dependent sodium reabsorption in SD rats77
Distal nephron
Reduces mitochondria membrane potential and mitochondria‐derived ROS, ameliorates
Ang II‐induced cell senescent in RPT cells (HK‐2 cell line)78
CCK
Duodenum
CCKAR, CCKBR
GPCR
Induces diuresis and natriuresis in anesthetized SHRs79
Proximal tubule
···
Uroguanylin
Duodenum and jejunum
Guanylate cyclase‐C
Guanylyl cyclase family
Induces natriuresis, kaliuresis, and diuresis in male Wistar rats80; inhibits bicarbonate
reabsorption in male Wistar rats81, 82
Proximal tubule, renal distal tubule
Inhibits the NHE3 activity in RPT cells (LLC‐PK1 cell line)81 and H+‐ATPase activity
and surface expression in MDCK‐C11 cells82
Guanylin
Duodenum and colon
Guanylate cyclase‐C
Guanylyl cyclase family
Causes kaliuresis and diuresis with less pronounced natriuretic effect in male Wistar
rats80
Collecting duct
Inhibits luminal K+ channels in human CCD cells83
Secretin
Duodenum and jejunum
Secretin receptor
GPCR
Increases both urinary volume and sodium excretion in healthy male volunteers84
Thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle
···
VIP
The whole small intestine
VIP receptor
GPCR
Increases the excretion of sodium, chloride, potassium, and fluid in male SD rats85
Proximal tubules
Decreases the intracellular ROS levels in HK2 human renal cells86; stimulates adenylate
cyclase activity in canine renal epithelial (MDCK) cells87
GLP‐1
Distal small intestine
GLP‐1 receptor
GPCR
Inhibits sodium uptake,facilitates natriuresis in male Wistar rats88
The brush border of proximal tubules
Inhibits the NHE3 activity and sodium reabsorption in RPT cells (LLC‐PK1 cell line)
and primary porcine RPT cells89, 90
PYY
Intestinal mucosa of the ileum and large intestine
Y receptors (Y1‐Y5)
GPCR
Increases sodium excretion, decreases GFR and RBF in male subjects and Wistar rats91,
92
Proximal tubules
Stimulates cell growth of mouse RPT cells93
Promotes sodium retention
Insulin
Pancreas
Insulin receptor
Tyrosine kinase receptor
Stimulates sodium and volume absorption in the rabbit kidney94
RPTs, the TALH, the distal convoluted tubule and the connecting tubule
Stimulates sodium transporters including NKA and NHE3 in OK cells and in primary RPT
cells from SD rats95, 96
C‐peptide
Pancreas
···
···
Attenuates high salt‐induced urine albumin, glomerular permeability, renal inflammation
in the Dahl salt‐sensitive rat97
Proximal tubules, medullary thick ascending limb
Stimulates NKA in human RPT cells98
IGF‐1
Liver
IGF receptor
Tyrosine kinase receptor
Increases GFR and RPF, and decreases renal vascular resistance in WKY rats, but not
in SHRs99; inhibits the basolateral Cl channels in SD rats100
RPT,thick ascending limb collecting ducts
Stimulates ClC‐K2 channels, promotes net Na+ and Cl‐ reabsorption in mouse CCD cells101
Ang II indicates angiotensin II; CCD, cortical collecting ducts; CCKAR, cholecystokinin
A receptor; CCKBR, cholecystokinin B receptor; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; GHSR,
growth hormone secretagogue receptor; GLP‐1, glucagon‐like peptide‐1; GPCR, G‐protein
coupled receptor; IGF, insulin‐like growth factor; MDCK, Madin‐Darby canine kidney;
NHE3, Na+‐H+ exchanger 3; NKA, Na+‐K+‐ATPase; OKP cells, opossum kidney proximal tubule
cells; PYY, peptide YY; RBF, renal blood flow; ROS, reactive oxygen species; RPF,
renal plasma flow; RPT, renal proximal tubule; SD rats, Sprague‐Dawley rats; SHRs,
spontaneously hypertensive rats; TALH, thick ascending limb of Henle; VIP, vasoactive
intestinal peptide; WKY rats, Wistar Kyoto rats.
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
In the hypertensive state, GI hormone plasma levels are altered. For example, the
basal plasma levels of amylin,102 glucagon,103 and insulin104 are higher, but circulating
ghrelin is lower in hypertensive than normotensive humans.105 We have reported that
plasma glucose and insulin levels are not different between salt‐resistant and salt‐sensitive
hypertensive humans. However, oral glucose administration increases plasma insulin
levels to a greater extent in salt‐sensitive than salt‐resistant subjects.106 The
fasting serum gastrin levels are similar in normotensive and hypertensive adult humans,
but a mixed meal increased plasma gastrin to greater levels in hypertensive patients
than normotensive controls.107 We have suggested that the greater increase in plasma
gastrin in hypertensive than normotensive subjects may be a compensatory response
to the impaired natriuretic effect of gastrin, if the studies in the SHRs could be
translated to hypertensive humans. In addition, antihypertensive medications also
alter circulating GI hormone concentrations.102, 108 It is still unknown what mechanisms
produce different GI hormone levels between normotensive and hypertensive status.
However, recent studies showed that the inherent differences in gut architecture between
WKY rats and SHRs may lead to changes of gut hormones. SHR proximal colon has a mean
steady‐state modulus almost 3 times greater than WKY rat colon, which is associated
with an increase in the vascular smooth muscle cells layer and collagen deposition
in the intestinal wall in SHRs.109 Moreover, the increase in blood pressure in SHRs
is also associated with gut pathology such as increasing intestinal permeability and
decreasing tight junction proteins.110 These phenomena that cause stiffening in relation
to changes of gut hormones and hypertension is unknown. However, these changes in
gut pathology in hypertension are associated with alterations of gut microbiota,110
which has been reported to play an important role in the regulation of gut or renal
hormones/peptides (vide infra).
In the kidney, there are also differences of GI hormone levels and their receptor
expression and function between the hypertensive and normotensive state. For example,
renal amylin receptor expression is increased111 but renal glucagon‐like peptide‐1
(GLP‐1) receptor (GLP‐1R) expression is decreased in SHRs and hypertensive patients.112
The renal expression of insulin receptors is not different between WKY and SHRs, but
a high‐salt diet decreases insulin receptor expression in WKY but not SHRs.113 Of
note is that insulin‐resistant rats have decreased renal insulin expression.114 We
have reported that there is no difference of cell surface membrane expression of gastrin
receptor, also called cholecystokinin (CCK) B receptor (CCKBR), in RPT cells between
WKY rats and SHRs. However, the infusion of gastrin induces a natriuresis and diuresis
in WKY rats but not in SHRs.11 Gastrin inhibits Na+‐K+‐ATPase activity in RPT cells
from WKY rats but not SHRs.11 However, gastrin‐containing cells are increased in the
stomach of SHRs and rats with renovascular hypertension.115, 116
In this report, we only discuss 2 GI hormones, gastrin and GLP‐1, which have received
increasing attention because of their ability to regulate renal sodium handling and
blood pressure, by themselves and in interaction with other hormones.
Glucagon‐Like Peptide‐1
GLP‐1 is secreted by intestinal L‐cells. Under normal conditions, GLP‐1 is rapidly
degraded at the N‐terminal penultimate position by dipeptidyl peptidase‐4. There is
no difference in circulating levels of GLP‐1 between young (5‐week‐old) WKY and SHRs.
However, there is a nonsignificant trend towards a decrease in plasma levels of total
GLP‐1 in adult (20‐week‐old) SHRs compared to adult WKY rats, which may be because
of the higher plasma level and activity of dipeptidyl peptidase‐4 in SHRs than age‐matched
WKY rats.117 The actions of GLP‐1 are primarily mediated by its receptor GLP‐1R, which
is widely distributed throughout the body, including the kidney. GLP‐1R is expressed
in the brush border of RPT. In rodents, GLP‐1R stimulation suppresses RPT sodium transport,
resulting in a natriuresis,88 which is also aided by GLP‐mediated increase in glomerular
filtration rate in rodents. GLP‐1R is constitutively active because the intravenous
administration of exendin‐9, a GLP‐1R antagonist, decreased glomerular filtration
rate, lithium clearance, urine flow, and sodium excretion in male Wistar rats. The
inhibition of RPT sodium transport by GLP‐1 is caused by inhibition of NHE3 activity
via a protein kinase A–dependent mechanism.88 GLP‐1R expression is decreased in renal
arteries of SHRs and hypertensive patients.112 GLP‐1R antagonist exendin 9 to 39 inhibits
GLP‐1R‐mediated relaxation in WKY arteries, whereas the relaxations are significantly
less in SHR arteries.112 GLP‐1 has antihypertensive effects that may be related to
both an increase in sodium excretion and vasodilatory effect in rodents.118
In humans, as in rodents, GLP‐1 induces natriuresis in healthy subjects and in insulin‐resistant
obese men.119, 120 GLP‐1‐mediated natriuresis in humans is related to inhibition of
renal proximal sodium transport.119 However, in contrast to rodents, the natriuretic
effect of GLP‐1 is not associated with an increase in renal plasma flow or glomerular
filtration rate.119, 120 The natriuretic effect of GLP‐1 in humans is also associated
with a decrease in plasma Ang II but not plasma renin, aldosterone, or urinary excretion
of angiotensinogen.119 The natriuretic and antihypertensive effect of exendin‐4, a
GLP‐1 agonist, is also related to a decrease in renal Ang II concentration in salt‐sensitive
obese db/db mice.121 Exendin‐4 also prevents Ang II‐induced hypertension in nondiabetic
mice.121 A synergism between GLP‐1 and atrial natriuretic peptide is found in rodents
but not in humans.122 In a 24‐week, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled, parallel‐group
study at 23 centers, exenatide, a GLP‐1 agonist, reduced systolic and diastolic blood
pressure.123 Similar results were found with ambulatory blood pressure.124 A meta‐analysis
of clinical trials including 16 randomized controlled trials that enrolled 3443 patients
showed that treatment with the GLP‐1R agonist reduced systolic and diastolic blood
pressure in patients with type 2 diabetes.125 Another meta‐analysis also showed a
beneficial effect of GLP‐1R agonists on major cardiovascular events.126
The above studies would suggest that GLP‐1 would have an antihypertensive action.
Indeed, in humans and mice GLP‐1 has antihypertensive effects.124, 127, 128 However,
several studies in rats have reported that GLP‐1 injection increases blood pressure
in a short time.129, 130 The reason may be associated with the fact that GLP‐1 also
acutely increases heart rate and cardiac output, and activates autonomic regulatory
neurons.129, 131 Plasma levels of GLP‐1 have been associated with systolic and diastolic
blood pressure in awake and sleeping healthy human subjects.132 The positive correlation
between plasma GLP‐1 and blood pressure was not related to blood glucose or insulin
but could be related to insulin resistance.
Decreased GLP‐1 and renal GLP‐1R expression may be involved in the pathogenesis of
hypertension. As stated above, renal arteries from SHRs and humans with essential
hypertension have decreased GLP‐1Rs, and GLP‐1‐mediated renal arterial vasorelaxation
is impaired in SHRs.112 In rats, serum level of GLP‐1, as well as renal GLP‐1R expression,
is decreased in N(G)‐nitro‐l‐arginine methyl ester (l‐NAME)‐induced hypertension,
relative to controls.133 Sitagliptin, a dipeptidyl peptidase‐4 inhibitor, protects
against l‐NAME‐induced hypertensive nephropathy by increasing the serum level of GLP‐1
and upregulation of GLP‐1 receptors.133
CCK and Gastrin
Gastrin is mostly synthetized in the G cells in the mucosa of the gastric antrum.
Small amounts are produced in the mucosa of the jejunum and outside the GI tract,
such as a few cerebral and peripheral neurons, pituitary gland, and spermatocytes.134,
135, 136 CCK, unlike gastrin, is synthesized by I cells in the upper intestine, but
share the same receptors, CCK receptor type A (CCKAR) and CCKBR. CCKAR is characterized
by a high affinity for CCK and by a low affinity for gastrin; in contrast, CCKBR has
a similar affinity for both peptide hormones. Because plasma gastrin levels are much
higher than CCK, CCKBR is also considered a gastrin receptor.137 The CCKBR is expressed
in specific nephron segments, including the proximal tubule, distal tubules, and collecting
ducts.74, 138 We have reported that CCKBR mRNA but not CCKAR is expressed in human
RPT cells.75 In the isolated perfused rat kidney, it is the CCKBR, not CCKAR, that
mediates the increase in sodium and decrease in potassium excretion caused by the
infusion of gastrin‐17.74
Both CCK and gastrin induce natriuresis and diuresis.11, 74, 79, 134 CCK may not increase
glomerular filtration rate79 but can increase renal blood flow that is blunted in
obese‐prone and hypertensive rats.139 Although both CCK and gastrin exert similar
effects in kidney, circulating gastrin levels are 10‐ to 20‐fold higher than CCK.140
Circulating CCK levels are not or transiently increased by gastric distention or duodenal
saline infusion.141 Moreover, CCK in the circulation is rapidly degraded by aminopeptidases.142
Of all the gut hormones, gastrin is the one that is taken up to the greatest extent
by RPTs.143 Food (with Na+) increases serum gastrin levels, and Na+ given orally,
even without food, also increases serum gastrin levels.144 Therefore, gastrin may
be a better candidate than CCK as the effector of the gastro‐renal reflex, at least
regarding sodium balance.
The importance of gastrin in the regulation of sodium excretion and blood pressure
is also supported by the gastrin (Gast) gene‐deficient mice (Gast−/−). Gast−/− mice
do not increase their sodium excretion after ingestion of sodium and develop salt‐sensitive
hypertension.145 We and others have reported the diuretic and natriuretic effects
of gastrin in both rats and humans.11, 74, 134, 146 This may be related to the ability
of gastrin to inhibit Na+‐K+‐ATPase and NHE3 activities in RPT cells.11, 75, 147 Moreover,
the inhibition of renal sodium transport by gastrin may be tissue specific because
gastrin increases H+‐K+‐ATPase activity in gastric parietal cells.148 Our studies
also showed that the diuretic and natriuretic effects of gastrin, as well as its inhibitory
effect on Na+‐K+‐ATPase activity, are lost in SHRs, suggesting that aberrant regulation
of gastrin on the natriuresis may have a role in the pathogenesis of hypertension.11,
149 The fasting serum gastrin levels are similar in normotensive and hypertensive
adults; however, the increase of serum gastrin levels is higher in the latter group
than in the former group after a mixed meal.107
Effects of Bariatric Surgery on the Secretion of GI‐Derived Hormones and Blood Pressure
Bariatric surgery may affect the secretion of gut‐derived hormones and blood pressure.
Different surgical methods may have different effects on the secretion of the same
GI hormone. For example, fasting plasma gastrin levels are normal in laparoscopic
gastric bypass surgery,150 while sleeve gastrectomy results in increased fasting plasma
gastrin levels.151 The postprandial gastrin secretion induced by a mixed meal is also
enhanced by sleeve gastrectomy.152 By contrast, procedures that reroute the nutrient
passage to the intestines, bypassing the gastric antrum, such as Roux‐en‐Y gastric
bypass (RYGB), prevent the increase in plasma gastrin following a mixed meal.152,
153, 154
Depending on the subjects or postoperative time, bariatric surgery has different effects
on the GI hormone responses. The first 2 weeks after RYGB in obese nondiabetic subjects,
fasting plasma levels of insulin, ghrelin, and peptide YY (PYY) are decreased, but
insulin sensitivity increased.153 The postprandial response to a mixed meal is increased
for C‐peptide, GLP‐1, GLP‐2, PYY, CCK, and glucagon; by contrast, the postprandial
response was decreased for ghrelin, leptin, and gastrin and unchanged for glucose‐dependent
insulinotropic polypeptide, amylin, pancreatic polypeptide, and somatostatin.153 In
obese patients with type 2 diabetes, 15 days after RYGB, fasting plasma levels of
pancreatic polypeptide, glucagon, and GLP‐1 are increased; but the pancreatic polypeptide
response to a mixed meal is decreased while that of glucagon and GLP‐1 remains increased.155
After 1 year in these same patients, PYY response to a mixed meal is increased, while
amylin, ghrelin, and GLP‐1 are decreased.155 The same study also found that the hormonal
responses after sleeve gastrectomy are similar to those with RYGB except that fasting
and meal‐induced plasma pancreatic polypeptide levels remain increased but unchanged
for amylin.155
Both long‐term and short‐term studies have shown that the blood pressures are decreased
in adults and adolescents who underwent bariatric surgery, such as RYGB and sleeve
gastrectomy.156, 157, 158 Compared with RYGB, sleeve gastrectomy is associated with
better early remission rates for hypertension and improvement in insulin sensitivity.159,
160 This may be related to the ability of bariatric surgery to increase the plasma
levels of natriuretic enterokines such as GLP‐1,155, 160, 161 which is natriuretic.88,
118, 119 In a study of 33 patients that lasted for 14 to 41 months after RYGB, 11
had increased sodium excretion while 22 had decreased sodium excretion that was related
to “excess weight loss” and could also have been related to decreased sodium intake.162,
163 Rats that are undergoing RYGB surgery also have increased sodium excretion following
oral salt loading.164 The decrease in glomerular filtration from high values with
bariatric surgery could also be considered a beneficial rate.165, 166
Interaction Between GI and Renal Hormones in the Regulation of Blood Pressure
Depending on the state of sodium balance, an oral NaCl load may induce a greater natriuresis
and diuresis than an intravenous infusion of the same amount of NaCl in some but not
all studies.35, 36, 37, 38 As stated above, the negative studies should not be taken
to dispute the presence of a “gastro‐renal axis” because there are sodium and chloride
sensors167 outside the GI tract and kidney (eg, vascular smooth muscles, heart, and
nervous system) that “instruct” the kidney to decrease sodium transport.29, 168, 169
Interaction Between GI Hormones and Renal Dopamine
Dopamine, a neurotransmitter in neural tissue, also acts as an autocrine/paracrine
substance in nonneural tissues including the kidney. Dopamine, produced locally in
the kidney, is now recognized to serve an important role in the regulation of blood
pressure and sodium balance by direct actions on renal and intestinal epithelial ion
transport, interaction with other receptors, and modulation of the secretion of hormonal/humoral
agents.26, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174 Dopamine receptors are classified into D1‐ and
D2‐like receptor subtypes: D1‐like receptors (D1R and D5R) couple to stimulatory G
protein GαS and stimulate adenylyl cyclase activity, whereas D2‐like receptors (D2R,
D3R, and D4R) couple to inhibitory G protein Gαi/Gαo and inhibit adenylyl cyclase
activity. These receptors can also couple to other G protein subunits, including Gq
and Golf.175, 176, 177 All of the 5 dopamine receptor subtypes are expressed in the
nephron. Disruption of any of the dopamine receptor genes in mice results in hypertension,
the pathogenesis of which is specific for each receptor subtype.173 In hypertensive
states, dopamine receptor–mediated natriuresis and diuresis are impaired. The dopaminergic
effect on renal water and sodium transport is modulated by interaction with GI hormones
(vide infra).
CCK/Gastrin and Dopamine Interaction
Gastrin is the major GI hormone taken up by RPT cells.143 Disruption of gastrin receptor
(CCKBR) in mice caused hypertension and decreased sodium excretion.178 We tested the
hypothesis that gastrin may interact with renal dopamine receptors to increase sodium
excretion, an impairment of which may result in hypertension.11, 178 We found that
gastrin synergistically interacts with renal D1‐like receptors to increase water and
sodium excretions in normotensive WKY rats, effects that were not observed in SHRs.
The interaction between gastrin and dopamine in the kidney occurred at the receptor
level because blockade of D1‐like or CCKBR abolished the natriuresis and diuresis
caused by gastrin or D1‐like receptor agonist fenoldopam, in WKY rats and BALB/c mice.11,
178 The gastrin/D1‐like receptor interaction was confirmed in RPT cells. In RPT cells
from WKY but not SHRs, stimulation of either D1‐like receptor or CCKBR inhibited Na+‐K+‐ATPase
activity, an effect that was blocked by D1‐like receptor or CCKBR antagonist.11 We
also found that CCKBR colocalized and coimmunoprecipitated with D1R or D5R in RPT
cells, which was increased after stimulation of either D1‐like receptor agonist or
gastrin.11, 178 Moreover, stimulation of 1 receptor increased the RPT cell membrane
expression of the other receptor, effects that were not observed in SHRs.11 The natriuresis
induced by a high sodium diet can also be blocked by D1‐like receptor agonist or CCKBR
antagonist.178 These data suggest that there is a synergism between CCKBR and D1R
or D5R to increase sodium excretion. An aberrant interaction between the renal CCKBR
and both D1‐like receptors may play a role in the pathogenesis of hypertension.
Insulin and Renal Dopamine Interaction
Insulin is secreted from pancreatic β cells, and exerts its physiological functions
via its receptors. Insulin receptors are widely distributed in the kidney and affect
multiple aspects of renal function. Besides its action on glucose metabolism, insulin
acts on almost all of the nephron segments and has been associated with anti‐natriuresis
at the whole‐animal level, sodium retention in isolated, perfused tubule studies,
and sodium uptake in cell culture.179, 180, 181 In kidney, insulin stimulates sodium
and volume absorption by directly stimulating some specific sodium transporters, exchangers,
and channels in renal tubule segments.179, 180, 181 Compensatory hyperinsulinemia
in individuals with insulin resistance enhances salt absorption in the RPT, resulting
in a state of salt overload and hypertension. On the other hand, a high sodium diet
causes an increase in insulin resistance.182
Insulin and dopamine have counterregulatory effects on renal sodium transport. Insulin
interacts with dopaminergic system at 2 different levels in the kidney. First, insulin
positively regulates the uptake of l‐dihydroxyphenylalanine, the immediate precursor
of catecholamines, including dopamine, through the increase in the number of high‐affinity
transport sites in the RPT.183 Second, insulin impairs dopamine receptor expression
and function in the kidney. Studies in both RPTs from hyperinsulinemic animals and
renal cell cultures treated with insulin show reduced D1R number, defective receptor‐G
protein coupling, and blunted D1‐like agonist‐induced Na+‐K+‐ATPase inhibition.184,
185 Moreover, insulin resistance leads to hyperphosphorylation of D1R and their uncoupling
from Gs proteins in obese Zucker rats, which can be restored by an insulin sensitizer,
rosiglitazone.186 It is possible that the insulin‐mediated increase in RPT cell uptake
of l‐dihydroxyphenylalanine could be a compensatory mechanism for the insulin‐mediated
blunting of D1R function.
In addition to the interaction between insulin and D1R, insulin also interacts with
D5R and D2R. Insulin increases D5R expression and its mediated inhibition of Na+‐K+‐ATPase
activity in RPT cells, which may be an important counterbalance to the increase in
renal tubular sodium reabsorption induced by insulin. However, the compensatory increase
in D5R expression following insulin treatment is lost in RPT cells from SHRs.187 Dopamine
also regulates insulin receptor expression and function. Thus, the D1‐like receptor
agonist fenoldopam increases the expression of insulin receptor in human RPT cells.
Moreover, D1R interacts with sorting nexin 5 to increase the sensitivity to insulin
via a positive regulation of insulin receptor expression and insulin signaling.188
Additionally, activation of D2R also regulates insulin secretion. Acute administration
of a D2‐like receptor agonist quinpirole or an agonist bromocriptine inhibits glucose‐stimulated
insulin secretion by a D2R‐dependent or ‐independent mechanism.189, 190 Disruption
of the D2R in mice also shows the impaired insulin secretion and glucose intolerance.191
Interaction Between GI Hormones and the RAS
It is well known that the RAS plays a key role in the development and maintenance
of hypertension.192, 193 The classical view of the products of the RAS as a circulating
hormone has evolved to organ‐based systems that perform paracrine/autocrine functions.
Local RAS exists in different organs including the kidney. Ang II is classically considered
the main mediator of the RAS. The renal tubules and interstitial compartments contain
much higher levels of Ang II than plasma.194 The majority of intrarenally produced
Ang II functions as a paracrine hormone. AT1R mediates the vast majority of renal
actions of Ang II, including renal tubular sodium transport.27 The RAS is broadly
activated in hypertensive status, including increased angiotensin‐converting enzyme
activity and Ang II levels in plasma, and enhanced renal AT1R expression and intrarenally
generated Ang II.195, 196 The counteraction of some endogenous factors may be novel
therapies to combat RAS‐dependent hypertension. There are increasing evidences of
interactions between intrarenal RAS and the GI‐derived hormones in the kidney.
GLP‐1 and the RAS
GLP‐1 can interact with the RAS.119, 121, 122 GLP‐1R agonists counteract the hypertensive
action of Ang II. Rodent studies have shown that GLP‐1R stimulation ameliorates Ang
II‐induced hypertension.121, 122 Exendin‐4, a GLP‐1R agonist, attenuated Ang II‐induced
high‐salt sensitivity and minimized the increase in blood pressure caused by Ang II
infusion.121 Another GLP‐1R agonist, liraglutide, also normalized both systolic and
diastolic blood pressure in mice with Ang II‐induced hypertension.122 Exendin‐4 was
also reported to decrease the Ang II‐induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation in opossum RPT
cells.121
There is also evidence of a renal beneficial role of the combination of GLP‐1R agonists
with inhibitors of the RAS components, such as angiotensin‐converting enzyme inhibitors
and Ang II receptor blockers. An exenatide analog, AC3174, lowered blood pressure
in Dahl salt‐sensitive rats fed a high‐salt diet. Moreover, the ability of AC3174
to attenuate renal damage was enhanced by captopril, an angiotensin‐converting enzyme
inhibitor, in these Dahl salt‐sensitive rats that were fed a high salt diet.197 The
combination of an Ang II receptor blocker (telmisartan) and a dipeptidyl peptidase‐4
inhibitor (linagliptin) reduced urinary albumin excretion and renal oxidative stress
in diabetic endothelial nitric oxide synthase knockout mice, indicating that linagliptin
in addition to an Ang II receptor blocker may be a new therapeutic approach for patients
with diabetic nephropathy.198
A randomized, double‐blinded, single‐day, crossover trial showed that the infusion
of GLP‐1 in healthy young males decreased Ang II but not plasma renin or aldosterone
levels or urinary excretion of angiotensinogen.119 However, the intravenous administration
of GLP‐1 increased aldosterone secretion in rats.199
The Role of Gut Microbiota in the Regulation of Gastro‐Renal Axis and Blood Pressure
In recent years, an increasing number of studies have focused on the association between
gut microbiota and cardiovascular diseases, including hypertension. There is a significant
decrease in gut microbial richness, diversity, and evenness in addition to an increase
in the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio in the SHRs and a small cohort of human hypertension
patients.200 The oral administration of minocycline attenuates high blood pressure,
and rebalances the dysbiosis of gut microbiota in the Ang II infusion hypertension
model by reducing the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio.200 Similar differences of gut
microbiotal genomic composition have been found between the Dahl salt‐sensitive and
Dahl salt‐resistant rats.201 High blood pressure is induced in WKY rats after exchanging
the gut microbiota between the WKY rats and SHRs.202 Gut microbial metabolites, such
as short‐chain fatty acids (SCFAs), were found to influence host physiological functions
including blood pressure.203 SCFAs influence blood pressure via activating sensory
receptors such as olfactory receptor 78 (Olfr78), GPR41, and GPR43.203, 204 Olfr78
is expressed well in the renal juxtaglomerular apparatus, where activation of Olfr78
induces renin secretion. Treatment with antibiotics reduces the biomass of the gut
microbiota and elevates blood pressure in Olfr78 knockout mice.205 These studies indicate
the role of gut microbiota in the pathophysiology of hypertension.
Although the mechanisms of gut microbiota on regulation of blood pressure are complex,
effects on gut or renal hormones/peptide synthesis or release might be involved. The
gut microbiota, via various metabolites such as SCFA, can influence the number and
function of enterochromaffin cells, thereby promoting the release of serotonin that
in turn impacts host physiological functions.206 It is reported that gut microbiota
affect the generation of free dopamine and norepinephrine in the gut lumen.207 The
levels of dopamine and norepinephrine in the lumen of the cecum are higher in control
mice than the germ‐free mice.207 The absence of the gut microbiota has been reported
to exacerbate the neuroendocrine and behavioral responses to acute stress and decreased
dopamine turnover in the frontal cortex, hippocampus, and striatum in response to
acute stress in F344 rats.208 However, in BALB/c mice, administration of oral antimicrobials
increases exploratory behavior that is independent of changes in levels of GI neurotransmitters
such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine.209 In addition, SCFAs, via activation
of Olfr78, induce renin release from the afferent arteriole and increase blood pressure,
which is confirmed in Olfr78‐deficient mice displaying lower renin concentrations,
and decreased blood pressure.205 Resistant starch is fermented to SCFAs by microflora
in the large intestine. High‐amylose resistant starch is associated with increased
gene expression of proglucagon (gene for GLP‐1) and PYY in the cecal and large intestine,
and increased plasma levels of PYY and GLP‐1, which play important roles in the regulation
of blood pressure.210 Dietary factors such as high fiber diet, and acetate supplementation
change the gut microbiota, downregulate renal RAS, and prevent the development of
hypertension in desoxycorticosterone acetate–salt hypertensive mice.211 These indicate
that targeting the gut microbiota may be a potential and novel strategy for the regulation
of gastro‐renal axis and treatment of hypertension.
Conclusions and Perspectives
In summary, increasing evidences support the concept of a gastro‐renal communication
in the excretion of a sodium load. Enterokines are released from the intestine into
the circulation in response to sodium intake that interacts with dopamine receptors
in the kidney to regulate sodium excretion and keep the blood pressure in the normal
range (Figure). The aberrant gastro‐renal natriuretic signaling axis may be involved
in the pathogenesis of hypertension. Increased understanding of the role of the gastro‐renal
axis in the regulation of renal function may give us a novel insight into the pathogenesis
of hypertension and provide a new treatment strategy for hypertension.
Figure 1
Schematic representation of the interaction of gut‐derived hormones with renal hormones/peptides
in the regulation of natriuresis and blood pressure. ACEI indicates angiotensin converting
enzyme inhibitor; Ang II, angiotensin II; ARB, angiotensin II receptor blocker; CCKBR,
cholecystokinin A receptor; D1R, dopamine D1 receptor; D5R, dopamine D5 receptor;
GLP‐1, glucagon‐like peptide‐1; GLP‐1R, glucagon‐like peptide‐1 receptor; IR, insulin
receptor; l‐DOPA, l‐dihydroxyphenylalanine; NHE3, Na+‐H+ exchanger 3; NKA, Na+‐K+‐ATPase;
RAS, renin–angiotensin system; RPT, renal proximal tubule.
Sources of Funding
These studies were supported in part by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (31430043, 81570379), National Basic Research Program of China (2013CB531104),
the Natural Science Foundation Project of Chongqing (cstc2015jcyjA10060), and the
National Institutes of Health, United States (R37HL023081, R01DK039308, R01HL092196,
P01HL068686, and P01HL0794940).
Disclosures
No conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, are declared by the authors.