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      Larval anatomy of Dendropsophus decipiens (A. Lutz 1925) (Anura: Hylidae: Dendropsophini) with considerations to larvae of this genus

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          Abstract

          The Dendropsophus decipiens clade comprises four species: D. berthalutzae, D. decipiens, D. haddadi, and D. oliveirai. Tadpoles of these species were described, but data on their internal morphology are lacking. We provide the first description of the buccopharyngeal anatomy, chondrocranial morphology, and cranial, hyoid and hyobranchial musculature of the tadpole of D. decipiens. Larvae of D. decipiens are characterized by the absence of lingual papillae, presence of fan-like papilla on the buccal floor, presence of a single-element suprarostral cartilage, presence of a small triangular process at the basis of the processus muscularis, m. levator mandibulae lateralis inserted on the nasal sac, and m. subarcualis rectus II-IV with a single, continuous slip. Tadpoles are likely macrophagous, although not as specialized as those of other species of the genus, suggesting some degree of diversification on the feeding habits within Dendropsophus.

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          The interplay of past diversification and evolutionary isolation with present imperilment across the amphibian tree of life

          Human activities continue to erode the tree of life, requiring us to prioritize research and conservation. Amphibians represent key victims and bellwethers of global change, and the need for action to conserve them is drastically outpacing knowledge. We provide a phylogeny incorporating nearly all extant amphibians (7,238 species). Current amphibian diversity is composed of both older, depauperate lineages and extensive, more recent tropical radiations found in select clades. Frog and salamander diversification increased strongly after the Cretaceous-Palaeogene boundary, preceded by a potential mass-extinction event in salamanders. Diversification rates of subterranean caecilians varied little over time. Biogeographically, the Afro- and Neotropics harbour a particularly high proportion of Gondwanan relicts, comprising species with high evolutionary distinctiveness (ED). These high-ED species represent a large portion of the branches in the present tree: around 28% of all phylogenetic diversity comes from species in the top 10% of ED. The association between ED and imperilment is weak, but many species with high ED are now imperilled or lack formal threat status, suggesting opportunities for integrating evolutionary position and phylogenetic heritage in addressing the current extinction crisis. By providing a phylogenetic estimate for extant amphibians and identifying their threats and ED, we offer a preliminary basis for a quantitatively informed global approach to conserving the amphibian tree of life.
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            Biogeographic analysis reveals ancient continental vicariance and recent oceanic dispersal in amphibians.

            R Pyron (2014)
            Amphibia comprises over 7000 extant species distributed in almost every ecosystem on every continent except Antarctica. Most species also show high specificity for particular habitats, biomes, or climatic niches, seemingly rendering long-distance dispersal unlikely. Indeed, many lineages still seem to show the signature of their Pangaean origin, approximately 300 Ma later. To date, no study has attempted a large-scale historical-biogeographic analysis of the group to understand the distribution of extant lineages. Here, I use an updated chronogram containing 3309 species (∼ 45% of extant diversity) to reconstruct their movement between 12 global ecoregions. I find that Pangaean origin and subsequent Laurasian and Gondwanan fragmentation explain a large proportion of patterns in the distribution of extant species. However, dispersal during the Cenozoic, likely across land bridges or short distances across oceans, has also exerted a strong influence. Finally, there are at least three strongly supported instances of long-distance oceanic dispersal between former Gondwanan landmasses during the Cenozoic. Extinction from intervening areas seems to be a strong factor in shaping present-day distributions. Dispersal and extinction from and between ecoregions are apparently tied to the evolution of extraordinarily adaptive expansion-oriented phenotypes that allow lineages to easily colonize new areas and diversify, or conversely, to extremely specialized phenotypes or heavily relictual climatic niches that result in strong geographic localization and limited diversification.
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              Phylogenetics, classification, and biogeography of the treefrogs (Amphibia: Anura: Arboranae).

              A phylogenetic analysis of sequences from 503 species of hylid frogs and four outgroup taxa resulted in 16,128 aligned sites of 19 genes. The molecular data were subjected to a maximum likelihood analysis that resulted in a new phylogenetic tree of treefrogs. A conservative new classification based on the tree has (1) three families composing an unranked taxon, Arboranae, (2) nine subfamilies (five resurrected, one new), and (3) six resurrected generic names and five new generic names. Using the results of a maximum likelihood timetree, times of divergence were determined. For the most part these times of divergence correlated well with historical geologic events. The arboranan frogs originated in South America in the Late Mesozoic or Early Cenozoic. The family Pelodryadidae diverged from its South American relative, Phyllomedusidae, in the Eocene and invaded Australia via Antarctica. There were two dispersals from South America to North America in the Paleogene. One lineage was the ancestral stock of Acris and its relatives, whereas the other lineage, subfamily Hylinae, differentiated into a myriad of genera in Middle America.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: MethodologyRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Funding acquisitionRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Project administrationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Funding acquisitionRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                11 July 2019
                2019
                : 14
                : 7
                : e0219716
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
                [2 ] División Herpetología, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales “Bernardino Rivadavia” – Conicet, Buenos Aires, Argentina
                [3 ] Laboratório de Biossistemática de Anfíbios, Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
                [4 ] Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Salobrinho, Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil
                National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), ARGENTINA
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8193-2736
                Article
                PONE-D-19-12058
                10.1371/journal.pone.0219716
                6623958
                31295323
                ed81e4da-27ef-44ed-b408-87cbf4284cfd
                © 2019 Dias et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 28 April 2019
                : 28 June 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 4, Tables: 1, Pages: 13
                Funding
                Funded by: FAPESP
                Award ID: # 2007/57067-9, 2012/10000-5, 2012/12500-5, 2013/20420-4, 2013/20423-3, 2013/50741-7, 2014/50342-2015/11239-0
                Funded by: CNPQ
                Award ID: Grant # 310467/2017-9
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica
                Award ID: PICT 404/2013 and 820/2015
                Award Recipient :
                This work was supported by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP), procs # 2007/57067-9, 2012/10000-5, 2012/12500-5, 2013/20420-4, 2013/20423-3, 2013/50741-7, 2014/50342-8, 2015/11239-0 ( http://www.fapesp.br/) to PHSD, KAV, VGDO; the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), Grant # 310467/2017-9 ( http://cnpq.br/) to VGDO; and the Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica (ANPCyT), PICT 404/2013 and 820/2015 ( https://www.argentina.gob.ar/ciencia/agencia) to KAV. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
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