The politics of food and starvation

Bush, Ray

doi:10.1080/03056249608704194

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Review of African Political Economy

Volume 23, Issue 68

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The politics of food and starvation

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research-article

Author(s): Ray Bush ^a

Publication date (Print): June 1996

Journal: Review of African Political Economy

Publisher: Review of African Political Economy

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Abstract

This article evaluates the persistence of famine and hunger in Africa. It assesses Africa's food crisis and traces some of the key debates on famine and starvation since the 1970s. It examines the continuity and change in those debates and argues that many of the recent insights into the ways in which food systems may become vulnerable to famine can be provided by an assessment of the political struggles involved in agricultural modernisation.

Content

Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (publisher-id): crea20

Journal ID (archive): CREA

Title: Review of African Political Economy

Publisher: Review of African Political Economy

ISSN (Print): 0305-6244

ISSN (Electronic): 1740-1720

Publication date (Print): June 1996

Volume: 23

Issue: 68

Pages: 169-195

Affiliations

^a Department of Politics , University of Leeds , UK

Article

Publisher ID: 8704194 Coden ID: Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 23, No. 68, June 1996, pp. 169-195

DOI: 10.1080/03056249608704194

SO-VID: 53bd026e-5d5d-4c19-81c0-3ba0b86bb01d

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All content is freely available without charge to users or their institutions. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission of the publisher or the author. Articles published in the journal are distributed under a http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Page count

Figures: 0, Tables: 0, References: 85, Pages: 27

Bibliography

Abbott John. . 1992. . Politics and Poverty: a Critique of the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations . , London : : Routledge. .
Allen Chris. . 1995. . ‘Understanding African Politics’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 22((65)) September;: 301––320. .
Basu Dipak R. . 1986. . ‘Sen's analysis of Famine: A Critique’. . Journal of Development Studies . , Vol. 22:: 598––603. .
Bates Robert. . 1981. . Markets and States in Tropical Africa . , Berkeley and Los Angeles : : University of California Press. .
1983. . Essays on the Political Economy of Rural Africa . , Cambridge : : Cambridge Univeristy Press. .
Baxter P T W. . 1994. . “‘From Telling People to Listening to Them: Changes in Approaches to the Development and Welfare of Pastoral Peoples’. ”. In Inducing Food Insecurity . , Edited by: Salih. . Uppsala : : Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. .
Baylies Carolyn. . 1995. . ‘Political Conditionality’ and Democratisation’. . Review of African Political Economy, Review of Books . , Vol. 22((65)) September;: 321––337. .
Beetham David. . 1994. . ‘Conditions for Democratic Consolidation’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 21((60)) June;: 157––172. .
Berry S. . 1993. . No Condition is Permanent . , Wisconsin : : University of Wisconsin Press. .
Bernstein Henry. . 1990. . ‘Agricultural “Modernisation” and the era of structural adjustment: Observations on Sub‐Saharan Africa’. . Journal of Peasant Studies . , Vol. 18((1)) October;: 3––135. .
Bohle H‐G, Watts M and Downing T E. . ‘Who is Vulnerable: People and Places’. In: . paper presented to conference on Climate Change and World Food Security; . July 11–15– ; . University of Oxford. .
Broad Robin. . 1994. . ‘The Poor and the Environment: Friends or Foes’. . World Development . , Vol. 22((6)): 811––822. .
Boserup E. . 1970. . Woman's role in Economic Development . , New York : : St. Martins Press. .
Bryceson Deborah Fahy. . 1993. . Liberalizing Tanzania's Food Trade . , Geneva and London : : UNRISD and James Currey. .
Salih. , ed. 1994. . “‘Too many Assumptions, Researching Grain Markets in Tanzania’. ”. In Inducing Food Insecurity .
Chambers Robert. . 1994. . The Poor and the Environment: Whose Reality Counts? . , Institute of Development Studies. .
Chambers Robert and Gordon Conway. . 1992. . Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st . , Century, Institute of Development Studies. .
Cleaver Kevin A and Schreiber G A. . 1994. . Reversing the Spiral . , Washington : : The World Bank. .
Cliffe Lionel. . 1994. . “‘The Impact of War on Food Security in Eritrea: Prospects for Recovery’. ”. In War and Hunger . Edited by: Macrea and Zwi. .
1974. . ‘Feudalism, Capitalism and Famine in Ethiopia’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 1:: 34––40. .
Cliffe Lionel and Peter Lawrence. . 1979. . ‘Agrarian Capitalism & Hunger’. . Review of African Political Economy . ,
Dasgupta Partha. . 1993. . An Inquiry into Weil‐Being and Destitution . , Oxford : : Clarendon Press. .
Davies Susanna. . 1993. . “‘Are Coping Strategies a Cop Out?’. ”. In New Approaches to Famine . Edited by: Swift. . p. 60––72. .
Delpeuch B. . 1994. . Seed and Surplus . , London : : CIIR/Farmers Link. .
Dreze J and Sen A. . 1989. . Hunger and Public Action . , Oxford : : Clarendon Press. .
de Waal Alex. . 1993. . “‘War and Famine in Africa’. ”. In New Approaches to Famine . Edited by: Swift. . p. 33––40. .
1990. . ‘A re‐assessment of entitlement theory in the light of the recent famines in Africa. . Development and Change . , Vol. 21:: 469––90. .
1989. . Famine that Kills . , Oxford : : Clarendon Press. .
Desai Meghnad. . 1992. . ‘Population and Poverty in Africa’. . African Development Review . , Vol. 4((2)) December;: 63––78. .
Duffield Mark. . 1994. . “‘The Political Economy of Internal War: Asset Transfer, Complex Emergencies and International Aid’. ”. In War and Hunger . Edited by: Macrea and Zwi. .
Elson Diane. . 1994. . “‘Micro, Meso, Macro: Gender and Economic Analysis in the Context of Policy Reform’. ”. In The Strategic Silence, Gender and Economic Policy . , Edited by: Bakker Isabella. . London : : Zed Books in association with The North‐South Institute. .
1988. . ‘Market Socialism or Socialization of the Market’. . New Left Review . , : 172
FAO. . March. 1995a . Food, Agriculture and Food Security The Global Dimension; Historical development, present situation, future prospects . , March. , Rome : : FAO/UN. .
1995b. . ‘Without Waiting ... How the international community can promote food security . , Rome : : FAO/UN. .
29 January‐2‐February. 1996a . Committee on World Food Security, Twenty first session, Draft of a Policy Statement and Plan of Action . , 29 January‐2‐February. , Rome : : FAO/UN. .
Jan. 1996b . Food Supply Situation And Crop Prospects in Sub‐Saharan Africa . , Vol. Vol. no.1. , Jan. , Rome : : FAO/UN. .
1996c. . News Release, African Food Security issues . , Rome : : FAO/UN. .
Faris Mohamed A and Khan Mahmood Hasan. , eds. 1993. . Sustainable Agriculture in Egypt . , Boulder and London : : Lynne Rienner. .
Friedmann Harriet. . 1993. . ‘The Political Economy of Food: a Global Crisis’. . New Left Review . , Vol. 197: Jan/Feb;: 29––57. .
Friedmann H and McMichael P. . 1989. . ‘Agriculture and the State System, The Rise and Decline of national agricultures, 1870 to the present’. . Sociologia Ruralis . , Vol. 14:: 93––118. .
George S. . 1976. . How the Other Half Dies . , London : : Penquin. .
1979. . Feeding the Few: Corporate Control of Food . , Washington : : Institute for Policy Studies. .
Gibbon, Peter K Havnevik and Hermele K. . 1993. . A Blighted Harvest, The World Bank and African Agriculture in the 1980s . , London and Trenton , NJ : : James Currey and Africa World Press. .
Glantz Michael. . 1996. . ‘Are Famines so difficult to predict?’. . Internet Journal of African Studies . , April;
Grigg David. . 1993. . The World Food Problem . , second edition. , Oxford : : Blackwell. .
4 April. 1996 . The Guardian . 4 April. , Manchester and London :
Hawthorn Geoffrey. . 1993. . “‘Sub‐Saharan Africa’. ”. In Prospects for Democracy . , Edited by: Held D. . Cambridge : : Polity Press. .
Hyden Goran. . 1980. . Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania . , Berkeley and Los Angeles : : University of California Press. .
1983. . No shortcuts to progress: African development management in perspective . , Berkeley and Los Angeles : : University of California Press. .
Keen David. . 1994. . The Benefits of Famine, A Political Economy of Famine and Relief in Southwestern Sudan, 1983–1989 . , New Jersey : : Princeton University Press. .
Macrae and Zwi. , eds. 1994. . “‘The Functions of Famine in South‐western Sudan: Implications for Relief. ”. In War and Hunger .
Keen David and Wilson Ken. . 1994. . “‘Engaging with Violence: A Reassessment of Relief in Wartime’. ”. In War and Hunger . Edited by: Macrae and Zwi. .
Konings Piet. . 1986. . The state and rural class formation in Ghana: A comparative analysis . , London : : Kegan Paul. .
Lang Tim and Hines Colin. . 1996. . ‘The “New Protectionist"’. . The New Political Economy . , Vol. 1((1)) March;: 111––114. .
Macrae Joanna. . 1994. . War and Hunger, Rethinking International Responses to Complex Emergencies . , Edited by: Anthony Zwi. . London : : Zed Books and Save the Children Fund. .
Macrae and Zwi. , eds. 1994. . “‘Famine, Complex Emergencies and International Policy in Africa: An Overview’. ”. In War and Hunger .
Mamdani M. . 1986. . ‘Peasants and Democracy in Africa’. . New Left Review . , Vol. 156:: 37––50. .
1982. . ‘Karamoja: Colonial Roots of Famine in North East Uganda’. . Review of African Political Economy . , : 66––73. .
Meillassoux Claude. . 1974. . ‘Development or Exploitation: Is the Sahel Famine Good Business?’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 1:: 27––33. .
Morton J. . 1994. . The Poverty of Nations, The Aid Dilemma at the Heart of Africa . , London : : British Academic Press. .
Polanyi Karl. . 1944. . The Great Transformation . , Boston : : Beacon Press. .
Raikes P. . 1988. . Modernising Hunger . , London : : Catholic Institute for International Relations and James Currey. .
Ranger Terence. . 1983. . “‘The invention of tradition in colonial Africa’. ”. In The Invention of Tradition . , Edited by: Hobsbawn E and Ranger T. . Cambridge : : Cambridge University Press. .
Redclift M. . 1992. . ‘A Framework for Improving Environmental Management: Beyond the Market Mechanism’. . World Development . , Vol. 20((2)): 255––259. .
Redclift M and Sage C. , eds. 1994. . Strategies for Sustainable Development: Local Agendas for the Southern Hemisphere . , Chicester : : John Wiley. .
Riley Stephen and Trevor Parfitt. . 1994. . “‘Economic Adjustment and Democratization in Africa in Walton & Seddon’. ”. In Free Markets and the Food Crisis .
Robinson Clive. . 15 January. 1996 . “‘Presentation by Clive Robinson to conference with Dr Jacques Diouf’. ”. 15 January. ,
Salih M A Mohamed. , ed. 1994. . Inducing Food Insecurity, Perspectives on Food Policies in Eastern and Southern Africa . , Uppsala : : Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. .
Sandbrook R. . 1986. . ‘State and Economic Stagnation in Tropical Africa’. . World Development . , Vol. 14((3)): 319––32. .
Sen A. . 1981. . Poverty and Famine: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation . , Oxford : : Clarendon Press. .
Snyder F G. . 1981. . Capitalism and Legal Change: An African Transformation . , London : : Academic Press. .
Spitz P. . 1980. . “‘Drought and Self Provisioning’. ”. In Food Systems and Society . , Geneva : : UNRISD. .
Swift Jeremy. . 1993. . ‘Understanding and Preventing Famine and Famine Mortality’ J Swift (ed), ‘New Approaches to Famine’. . IDS Bulletin . , Vol. 24((4)) October;: 1––16. .
Teklu, Tesfaye Joachim von Braun and Zaki Elsayed. . 1991. . “‘Drought and Famine Relationships in Sudan: Policy Implications’. ”. In Research Report 88 . , Washington , DC : : International Food Policy Research Institute. .
Thompson Carol B. . 1991. . Harvests Under Fire, Regional Co‐operation For Food Security in Southern Africa . , London : : Zed Books. .
Udayagiri Mridula. . 1994. . “‘The Asian Debt Crisis: Structural Adjustment and Popular Protest in India’. ”. In Free Markets and Food Riots .
UNICEF. . 1994. . The State of the World's Children . , Oxford : : University Press. .
von Braun J, Teklu T and Webb P. . 1993. . “‘Famine as the Outcome of Political, Production and Market Failures’. ”. In New Approaches to Famine . Edited by: Swift. . p. 73––78. .
Walton J and Seddon D. . 1994. . Free Markets & Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment . , Oxford : : Blackwell. .
Watts Michael. . 1991. . ‘Entitlement or Empowerment? Famine and Starvation in Africa’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 51:: 9––26. .
Williams Gavin. . 1988. . ‘The World Bank in Rural Nigeria, Revisited: A Review of the World Bank's Nigeria: Agricultural Sector Review 1987’. . Review of African Political Economy . , : 42––67. .
Woldemeskel G. . 1990. . ‘Famine and the Two Faces of Entitlement: A Comment on Sen’. . World Development . , Vol. 18((3)): 491––495. .
World Bank. . 1989. . Sub‐saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth . , Washington : : World Bank. .
1991. . World Development Report . , Washington : : World Bank. .
Young Helen. . 1992. . Food Scarcity and Famine: Assessment and Response, Oxfam Practical Health Guide, no.7 . , Oxford : : Oxfam. .

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Abbott John. . 1992. . Politics and Poverty: a Critique of the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations . , London : : Routledge. .

[2] Allen Chris. . 1995. . ‘Understanding African Politics’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 22((65)) September;: 301––320. .

[3] Basu Dipak R. . 1986. . ‘Sen's analysis of Famine: A Critique’. . Journal of Development Studies . , Vol. 22:: 598––603. .

[4] Bates Robert. . 1981. . Markets and States in Tropical Africa . , Berkeley and Los Angeles : : University of California Press. .

[5] 1983. . Essays on the Political Economy of Rural Africa . , Cambridge : : Cambridge Univeristy Press. .

[6] Baxter P T W. . 1994. . “‘From Telling People to Listening to Them: Changes in Approaches to the Development and Welfare of Pastoral Peoples’. ”. In Inducing Food Insecurity . , Edited by: Salih. . Uppsala : : Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. .

[7] Baylies Carolyn. . 1995. . ‘Political Conditionality’ and Democratisation’. . Review of African Political Economy, Review of Books . , Vol. 22((65)) September;: 321––337. .

[8] Beetham David. . 1994. . ‘Conditions for Democratic Consolidation’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 21((60)) June;: 157––172. .

[9] Berry S. . 1993. . No Condition is Permanent . , Wisconsin : : University of Wisconsin Press. .

[10] Bernstein Henry. . 1990. . ‘Agricultural “Modernisation” and the era of structural adjustment: Observations on Sub‐Saharan Africa’. . Journal of Peasant Studies . , Vol. 18((1)) October;: 3––135. .

[11] Bohle H‐G, Watts M and Downing T E. . ‘Who is Vulnerable: People and Places’. In: . paper presented to conference on Climate Change and World Food Security; . July 11–15– ; . University of Oxford. .

[12] Broad Robin. . 1994. . ‘The Poor and the Environment: Friends or Foes’. . World Development . , Vol. 22((6)): 811––822. .

[13] Boserup E. . 1970. . Woman's role in Economic Development . , New York : : St. Martins Press. .

[14] Bryceson Deborah Fahy. . 1993. . Liberalizing Tanzania's Food Trade . , Geneva and London : : UNRISD and James Currey. .

[15] Salih. , ed. 1994. . “‘Too many Assumptions, Researching Grain Markets in Tanzania’. ”. In Inducing Food Insecurity .

[16] Chambers Robert. . 1994. . The Poor and the Environment: Whose Reality Counts? . , Institute of Development Studies. .

[17] Chambers Robert and Gordon Conway. . 1992. . Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st . , Century, Institute of Development Studies. .

[18] Cleaver Kevin A and Schreiber G A. . 1994. . Reversing the Spiral . , Washington : : The World Bank. .

[19] Cliffe Lionel. . 1994. . “‘The Impact of War on Food Security in Eritrea: Prospects for Recovery’. ”. In War and Hunger . Edited by: Macrea and Zwi. .

[20] 1974. . ‘Feudalism, Capitalism and Famine in Ethiopia’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 1:: 34––40. .

[21] Cliffe Lionel and Peter Lawrence. . 1979. . ‘Agrarian Capitalism & Hunger’. . Review of African Political Economy . ,

[22] Dasgupta Partha. . 1993. . An Inquiry into Weil‐Being and Destitution . , Oxford : : Clarendon Press. .

[23] Davies Susanna. . 1993. . “‘Are Coping Strategies a Cop Out?’. ”. In New Approaches to Famine . Edited by: Swift. . p. 60––72. .

[24] Delpeuch B. . 1994. . Seed and Surplus . , London : : CIIR/Farmers Link. .

[25] Dreze J and Sen A. . 1989. . Hunger and Public Action . , Oxford : : Clarendon Press. .

[26] de Waal Alex. . 1993. . “‘War and Famine in Africa’. ”. In New Approaches to Famine . Edited by: Swift. . p. 33––40. .

[27] 1990. . ‘A re‐assessment of entitlement theory in the light of the recent famines in Africa. . Development and Change . , Vol. 21:: 469––90. .

[28] 1989. . Famine that Kills . , Oxford : : Clarendon Press. .

[29] Desai Meghnad. . 1992. . ‘Population and Poverty in Africa’. . African Development Review . , Vol. 4((2)) December;: 63––78. .

[30] Duffield Mark. . 1994. . “‘The Political Economy of Internal War: Asset Transfer, Complex Emergencies and International Aid’. ”. In War and Hunger . Edited by: Macrea and Zwi. .

[31] Elson Diane. . 1994. . “‘Micro, Meso, Macro: Gender and Economic Analysis in the Context of Policy Reform’. ”. In The Strategic Silence, Gender and Economic Policy . , Edited by: Bakker Isabella. . London : : Zed Books in association with The North‐South Institute. .

[32] 1988. . ‘Market Socialism or Socialization of the Market’. . New Left Review . , : 172

[33] FAO. . March. 1995a . Food, Agriculture and Food Security The Global Dimension; Historical development, present situation, future prospects . , March. , Rome : : FAO/UN. .

[34] 1995b. . ‘Without Waiting ... How the international community can promote food security . , Rome : : FAO/UN. .

[35] 29 January‐2‐February. 1996a . Committee on World Food Security, Twenty first session, Draft of a Policy Statement and Plan of Action . , 29 January‐2‐February. , Rome : : FAO/UN. .

[36] Jan. 1996b . Food Supply Situation And Crop Prospects in Sub‐Saharan Africa . , Vol. Vol. no.1. , Jan. , Rome : : FAO/UN. .

[37] 1996c. . News Release, African Food Security issues . , Rome : : FAO/UN. .

[38] Faris Mohamed A and Khan Mahmood Hasan. , eds. 1993. . Sustainable Agriculture in Egypt . , Boulder and London : : Lynne Rienner. .

[39] Friedmann Harriet. . 1993. . ‘The Political Economy of Food: a Global Crisis’. . New Left Review . , Vol. 197: Jan/Feb;: 29––57. .

[40] Friedmann H and McMichael P. . 1989. . ‘Agriculture and the State System, The Rise and Decline of national agricultures, 1870 to the present’. . Sociologia Ruralis . , Vol. 14:: 93––118. .

[41] George S. . 1976. . How the Other Half Dies . , London : : Penquin. .

[42] 1979. . Feeding the Few: Corporate Control of Food . , Washington : : Institute for Policy Studies. .

[43] Gibbon, Peter K Havnevik and Hermele K. . 1993. . A Blighted Harvest, The World Bank and African Agriculture in the 1980s . , London and Trenton , NJ : : James Currey and Africa World Press. .

[44] Glantz Michael. . 1996. . ‘Are Famines so difficult to predict?’. . Internet Journal of African Studies . , April;

[45] Grigg David. . 1993. . The World Food Problem . , second edition. , Oxford : : Blackwell. .

[46] 4 April. 1996 . The Guardian . 4 April. , Manchester and London :

[47] Hawthorn Geoffrey. . 1993. . “‘Sub‐Saharan Africa’. ”. In Prospects for Democracy . , Edited by: Held D. . Cambridge : : Polity Press. .

[48] Hyden Goran. . 1980. . Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania . , Berkeley and Los Angeles : : University of California Press. .

[49] 1983. . No shortcuts to progress: African development management in perspective . , Berkeley and Los Angeles : : University of California Press. .

[50] Keen David. . 1994. . The Benefits of Famine, A Political Economy of Famine and Relief in Southwestern Sudan, 1983–1989 . , New Jersey : : Princeton University Press. .

[51] Macrae and Zwi. , eds. 1994. . “‘The Functions of Famine in South‐western Sudan: Implications for Relief. ”. In War and Hunger .

[52] Keen David and Wilson Ken. . 1994. . “‘Engaging with Violence: A Reassessment of Relief in Wartime’. ”. In War and Hunger . Edited by: Macrae and Zwi. .

[53] Konings Piet. . 1986. . The state and rural class formation in Ghana: A comparative analysis . , London : : Kegan Paul. .

[54] Lang Tim and Hines Colin. . 1996. . ‘The “New Protectionist"’. . The New Political Economy . , Vol. 1((1)) March;: 111––114. .

[55] Macrae Joanna. . 1994. . War and Hunger, Rethinking International Responses to Complex Emergencies . , Edited by: Anthony Zwi. . London : : Zed Books and Save the Children Fund. .

[56] Macrae and Zwi. , eds. 1994. . “‘Famine, Complex Emergencies and International Policy in Africa: An Overview’. ”. In War and Hunger .

[57] Mamdani M. . 1986. . ‘Peasants and Democracy in Africa’. . New Left Review . , Vol. 156:: 37––50. .

[58] 1982. . ‘Karamoja: Colonial Roots of Famine in North East Uganda’. . Review of African Political Economy . , : 66––73. .

[59] Meillassoux Claude. . 1974. . ‘Development or Exploitation: Is the Sahel Famine Good Business?’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 1:: 27––33. .

[60] Morton J. . 1994. . The Poverty of Nations, The Aid Dilemma at the Heart of Africa . , London : : British Academic Press. .

[61] Polanyi Karl. . 1944. . The Great Transformation . , Boston : : Beacon Press. .

[62] Raikes P. . 1988. . Modernising Hunger . , London : : Catholic Institute for International Relations and James Currey. .

[63] Ranger Terence. . 1983. . “‘The invention of tradition in colonial Africa’. ”. In The Invention of Tradition . , Edited by: Hobsbawn E and Ranger T. . Cambridge : : Cambridge University Press. .

[64] Redclift M. . 1992. . ‘A Framework for Improving Environmental Management: Beyond the Market Mechanism’. . World Development . , Vol. 20((2)): 255––259. .

[65] Redclift M and Sage C. , eds. 1994. . Strategies for Sustainable Development: Local Agendas for the Southern Hemisphere . , Chicester : : John Wiley. .

[66] Riley Stephen and Trevor Parfitt. . 1994. . “‘Economic Adjustment and Democratization in Africa in Walton & Seddon’. ”. In Free Markets and the Food Crisis .

[67] Robinson Clive. . 15 January. 1996 . “‘Presentation by Clive Robinson to conference with Dr Jacques Diouf’. ”. 15 January. ,

[68] Salih M A Mohamed. , ed. 1994. . Inducing Food Insecurity, Perspectives on Food Policies in Eastern and Southern Africa . , Uppsala : : Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. .

[69] Sandbrook R. . 1986. . ‘State and Economic Stagnation in Tropical Africa’. . World Development . , Vol. 14((3)): 319––32. .

[70] Sen A. . 1981. . Poverty and Famine: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation . , Oxford : : Clarendon Press. .

[71] Snyder F G. . 1981. . Capitalism and Legal Change: An African Transformation . , London : : Academic Press. .

[72] Spitz P. . 1980. . “‘Drought and Self Provisioning’. ”. In Food Systems and Society . , Geneva : : UNRISD. .

[73] Swift Jeremy. . 1993. . ‘Understanding and Preventing Famine and Famine Mortality’ J Swift (ed), ‘New Approaches to Famine’. . IDS Bulletin . , Vol. 24((4)) October;: 1––16. .

[74] Teklu, Tesfaye Joachim von Braun and Zaki Elsayed. . 1991. . “‘Drought and Famine Relationships in Sudan: Policy Implications’. ”. In Research Report 88 . , Washington , DC : : International Food Policy Research Institute. .

[75] Thompson Carol B. . 1991. . Harvests Under Fire, Regional Co‐operation For Food Security in Southern Africa . , London : : Zed Books. .

[76] Udayagiri Mridula. . 1994. . “‘The Asian Debt Crisis: Structural Adjustment and Popular Protest in India’. ”. In Free Markets and Food Riots .

[77] UNICEF. . 1994. . The State of the World's Children . , Oxford : : University Press. .

[78] von Braun J, Teklu T and Webb P. . 1993. . “‘Famine as the Outcome of Political, Production and Market Failures’. ”. In New Approaches to Famine . Edited by: Swift. . p. 73––78. .

[79] Walton J and Seddon D. . 1994. . Free Markets & Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment . , Oxford : : Blackwell. .

[80] Watts Michael. . 1991. . ‘Entitlement or Empowerment? Famine and Starvation in Africa’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 51:: 9––26. .

[81] Williams Gavin. . 1988. . ‘The World Bank in Rural Nigeria, Revisited: A Review of the World Bank's Nigeria: Agricultural Sector Review 1987’. . Review of African Political Economy . , : 42––67. .

[82] Woldemeskel G. . 1990. . ‘Famine and the Two Faces of Entitlement: A Comment on Sen’. . World Development . , Vol. 18((3)): 491––495. .

[83] World Bank. . 1989. . Sub‐saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth . , Washington : : World Bank. .

[84] 1991. . World Development Report . , Washington : : World Bank. .

[85] Young Helen. . 1992. . Food Scarcity and Famine: Assessment and Response, Oxfam Practical Health Guide, no.7 . , Oxford : : Oxfam. .

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